Science of Grapevines (eBook)

Anatomy and Physiology

Markus Keller (Autor)

eBook Download: PDF | EPUB

2015 | 2. Auflage
522 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-12-420008-1 (ISBN)

Infos

The Science of Grapevines: Anatomy and Physiology is an introduction to the physical structure of the grapevine, its various organs, their functions and their interactions with the environment. Beginning with a brief overview of the botanical classification (including an introduction to the concepts of species, cultivars, clones, and rootstocks), plant morphology and anatomy, and growth cycles of grapevines, The Science of Grapevines covers the basic concepts in growth and development, water relations, photosynthesis and respiration, mineral uptake and utilization, and carbon partitioning. These concepts are put to use to understand plant-environment interactions including canopy dynamics, yield formation, and fruit composition, and concludes with an introduction to stress physiology, including water stress (drought and flooding), nutrient deficiency and excess, extreme temperatures (heat and cold), and the impact and response to of other organisms. Based on the author's years of teaching grapevine anatomy as well as his research experience with grapevines and practical experience growing grapes, this book provides an important guide to understanding the entire plant. - Chapter 7 broken into two chapters, now 'Environmental Constraints and Stress Physiology and Chapter 8 'Living with Other Organisms' to better reflect specific concepts - Integration of new research results including: - Latest research on implementing drip irrigation to maximize sugar accumulation within grapes - Effect of drought stress on grapevine's hydraulic system and options for optimum plant maintenance in drought conditions - The recently discovered plant hormone - strigolactones - and their contribution of apical dominance that has suddenly outdated dogma on apical dominance control - Chapter summaries added - Key literature references missed in the first edition as well as references to research completed since the 1e publication will be added

Dr. Keller received his master's degree in agronomy (plant science) and doctorate in natural sciences from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. He has taught and conducted research in viticulture and grapevine physiology in three continents and is the author of numerous scientific and technical papers and industry articles in addition to being a frequent speaker at scientific conferences and industry meetings and workshops. He also has extensive practical experience in both the vineyard and winery as a result of work in the family enterprise and was awarded the Swiss AgroPrize for innovative contributions to Switzerland's agricultural industry.

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The Science of Grapevines: Anatomy and Physiology is an introduction to the physical structure of the grapevine, its various organs, their functions and their interactions with the environment. Beginning with a brief overview of the botanical classification (including an introduction to the concepts of species, cultivars, clones, and rootstocks), plant morphology and anatomy, and growth cycles of grapevines, The Science of Grapevines covers the basic concepts in growth and development, water relations, photosynthesis and respiration, mineral uptake and utilization, and carbon partitioning. These concepts are put to use to understand plant-environment interactions including canopy dynamics, yield formation, and fruit composition, and concludes with an introduction to stress physiology, including water stress (drought and flooding), nutrient deficiency and excess, extreme temperatures (heat and cold), and the impact and response to of other organisms. Based on the author's years of teaching grapevine anatomy as well as his research experience with grapevines and practical experience growing grapes, this book provides an important guide to understanding the entire plant. - Chapter 7 broken into two chapters, now "e;Environmental Constraints and Stress Physiology and Chapter 8 "e;Living with Other Organisms"e; to better reflect specific concepts- Integration of new research results including:- Latest research on implementing drip irrigation to maximize sugar accumulation within grapes- Effect of drought stress on grapevine's hydraulic system and options for optimum plant maintenance in drought conditions- The recently discovered plant hormone strigolactones and their contribution of apical dominance that has suddenly outdated dogma on apical dominance control- Chapter summaries added- Key literature references missed in the first edition as well as references to research completed since the 1e publication will be added

Inhalt

Front Cover 1
The Science of Grapevines 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 6
About the Author 10
Preface to the Second Edition 12
1 Botany and Anatomy 14
1.1 Botanical Classification and Geographical Distribution 15
Domain Eukaryota 16
Kingdom Plantae 16
Division (phylum) Angiospermae (synonym Magnoliophyta) 17
Class Dicotyledoneae (synonym Magnoliopsida) 17
Order Rhamnales (Vitales according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny web) 17
Family Vitaceae 17
Genus Muscadinia 18
Genus Vitis 18
American group 20
Eurasian group 22
1.2 Cultivars, Clones, and Rootstocks 23
1.2.1 Variety Versus Cultivar 23
1.2.2 Cultivar Classification 30
1.2.3 Clones 32
1.2.4 Rootstocks 34
1.3 Morphology and Anatomy 37
1.3.1 Root 39
1.3.2 Trunk and Shoots 46
1.3.3 Nodes and Buds 54
1.3.4 Leaves 57
1.3.5 Tendrils and Clusters 63
1.3.6 Flowers and Grape Berries 65
2 Phenology and Growth Cycle 72
2.1 Seasons and Day Length 72
2.2 Vegetative Cycle 74
2.3 Reproductive Cycle 96
3 Water Relations and Nutrient Uptake 114
3.1 Osmosis, Water Potential, and Cell Expansion 114
3.2 Transpiration and Stomatal Action 119
3.3 Water and Nutrient Uptake and Transport 123
4 Photosynthesis and Respiration 138
4.1 Light Absorption and Energy Capture 138
4.2 Carbon Uptake and Assimilation 143
4.3 Photorespiration 149
4.4 Respiration 151
4.5 From Cells to Plants 154
5 Partitioning of Assimilates 158
5.1 Photosynthate Translocation and Distribution 159
5.1.1 Allocation and Partitioning 169
5.2 Canopy–Environment Interactions 176
5.2.1 Light 178
5.2.2 Temperature 187
5.2.3 Wind 190
5.2.4 Humidity 192
5.2.5 The “Ideal” Canopy 193
5.3 Nitrogen Assimilation and Interaction with Carbon Metabolism 195
5.3.1 Nitrate Uptake and Reduction 196
5.3.2 Ammonium Assimilation 198
5.3.3 From Cells to Plants 200
6 Developmental Physiology 206
6.1 Yield Formation 207
6.1.1 Yield Potential and Its Realization 210
6.2 Grape Composition and Fruit Quality 218
6.2.1 Water 222
6.2.2 Sugars 225
6.2.3 Acids 229
6.2.4 Nitrogenous Compounds and Mineral Nutrients 232
6.2.5 Phenolics 236
6.2.6 Lipids and Volatiles 249
6.3 Sources of Variation in Fruit Composition 256
6.3.1 Fruit Maturity 257
6.3.2 Light 258
6.3.3 Temperature 262
6.3.4 Water Status 267
6.3.5 Nutrient Status 270
6.3.6 Crop Load 274
6.3.7 Rootstock 277
7 Environmental Constraints and Stress Physiology 280
7.1 Responses to Abiotic Stress 281
7.2 Water: Too Much or Too Little 285
7.3 Nutrients: Deficiency and Excess 300
7.3.1 Macronutrients 306
Nitrogen 306
Phosphorus 311
Potassium 313
Sulfur 316
Calcium 317
Magnesium 319
7.3.2 Transition Metals and Micronutrients 321
Iron 321
Zinc 324
Copper 325
Manganese 326
Molybdenum 327
Boron 327
Nickel 329
Silicon 329
7.3.3 Salinity 330
7.4 Temperature: Too Cold or Too Warm 334
7.4.1 Heat Acclimation and Damage 335
7.4.2 Chilling Stress 339
7.4.3 Cold Acclimation and Freeze Damage 342
8 Living with Other Organisms 356
8.1 Biotic Stress and Evolutionary Arms Races 356
8.2 Pathogens: Defense and Damage 365
8.2.1 Bunch Rot 366
8.2.2 Powdery Mildew 370
8.2.3 Downy Mildew 372
8.2.4 Bacteria 374
8.2.5 Viruses 377
Abbreviations and Symbols 382
Glossary 384
References 394
Internet Resources 502
Index 504

Textauszug

Chapter 2

Phenology and Growth Cycle

The annual growth cycle of fruiting grapevines is divided into a vegetative and a reproductive cycle. Fruit production extends over 2 years: buds formed in the first year give rise to shoots bearing fruit in the second year. Seasonal growth is driven by day length and temperature, and alternates with winter dormancy. The transition from dormancy to active growth in spring is marked by bleeding of xylem sap from pruning wounds due to root pressure. Root pressure restores xylem functionality and rehydrates the dormant buds. Increasing temperature then leads to budbreak and shoot growth that is marked by apical dominance. Shoots and roots grow as long as the environment permits. The shoots form brown periderm when the days shorten in late summer, enter dormancy, and shed their leaves in autumn. Chilling temperatures release dormancy to resume growth in spring. Flower clusters are initiated in the buds in early summer, and flowers differentiate after budbreak the following spring. Double fertilization during bloom initiates the transition of flowers to berries. Berry growth follows a double-sigmoid pattern of cell division and expansion, seed growth, and final cell expansion concomitant with fruit ripening. Seedless berries have less discernible growth phases. Ripening makes berries attractive for seed dispersers to spread a vine’s genes.

Keywords

Anthesis; apical dominance; berry fruit; differentiation; dormancy; phenology; reproductive growth; ripening; root pressure; vegetative growth

Chapter Outline

2.1 Seasons and Day Length 59

2.2 Vegetative Cycle 61

2.3 Reproductive Cycle 83

2.1 Seasons and Day Length

Phenology (Greek phainesthai=to appear, logos=knowledge, teaching) is the study of natural phenomena that recur periodically in plants and animals and of the relationship of these phenomena to climate and changes in season. In other words, it is the study of the annual sequence of plant development. Its aim is to describe the causes of variation in timing of developmental events by seeking correlations between weather indices and the dates of particular growth events and the intervals between them. Phenology investigates a plant’s reaction to the environment and attempts to predict its behavior in new environments. In viticulture, phenology is mainly concerned with the timing of specific stages of growth and development in the annual cycle. Such knowledge can be used for site and cultivar selection, vineyard design, planning of labor and equipment requirements, and timing of cultural practices as part of vineyard management (Dry and Coombe, 2004).

Grapevines, like other plants, monitor the seasons by means of an endogenous “clock” (Greek endon=inside, genes=causing) in order to prevent damage by unfavorable environments. Every plant cell contains a clock (perhaps even several clocks), and the clocks of different cells, tissues, and organs act autonomously (McClung, 2001, 2008). The clock is driven by a self-sustaining oscillator consisting of proteins that oscillate with a 24 h rhythm in response to light detected by phytochromes (see Section 5.2) and other light-sensitive proteins that translate the light signal into a clock input that uses this time-encoded information to regulate physiological functions (Fankhauser and Staiger, 2002; Spalding and Folta, 2005). Additional input is provided through feedback loops that arise from various compounds produced by the plant’s metabolism (McClung, 2008). Just how plants manage to integrate and transform this environmental and metabolic information into daily and seasonal functions and how they avoid being “fooled” by bright moonlight is still mysterious, but it could involve fluctuations in calcium concentration of the cytosol. Cytosolic Ca2+ also oscillates with a 24 h period with a peak before dusk, and it participates in the “translation” of many signals, both internal and external (Hotta et al., 2007; McClung, 2001; Salomé and McClung, 2005; see also Section 7.3). In contrast to the temperature dependence of most biochemical processes, the period of the rhythm is temperature compensated so that it remains constant at 24 h over a wide range of temperatures. The gradual shift in time of sunrise (actually the change between dawn and dusk) as the seasons progress serves to reset the phase of the clock every day and enables plants to “know” when the sun will rise even before dawn (Fankhauser and Staiger, 2002). This synchronization of the circadian (Latin circa=about, dies=day) clock to the external environment is termed entrainment. It translates day length (i.e., photoperiod) into a vine’s internal time as an estimate of both the time of day and the time of year, enabling it to anticipate and prepare for daily and seasonal fluctuations in light and temperature. For example, the genes responsible for “building” enzymes involved in the production of ultraviolet (UV)-protecting phenolics are most active before dawn, photosynthesis-related genes peak during the day (and opening and closing of the stomata can anticipate dawn and dusk), and genes associated with stress are induced in late afternoon (Fankhauser and Staiger, 2002; Hotta et al., 2007).

On a seasonal scale, flowering, onset of fruit ripening, bud dormancy, leaf senescence (Latin senescere=to grow old), and cold acclimation are typical responses to day length (the so-called photoperiodism), although each of these developmental processes is also modulated by temperature, and some can be altered by stress factors such as drought (see Section 7.2), nutrient deficiency or excess (see Section 7.3), or infection by pathogens (see Section 8.2). In general, higher temperatures accelerate plant development and advance grapevine phenology (Parker et al., 2011). For example, the time of budbreak of a given V. vinifera cultivar grown in a specific location can vary by about 1 month from one year to another (Boursiquot et al., 1995). Even very high temperatures (e.g., average daily mean 35°C) still shorten the time from budbreak to bloom compared with lower temperatures (Buttrose and Hale, 1973). Therefore, one of the most conspicuous consequences of climate change associated with the current and future increase in temperature due to the man-made rise of atmospheric CO2 is a shift of phenological stages to earlier times during the growing season (Chuine et al., 2004; Wolfe et al., 2005).

Because day length during the growing season is longer at higher latitudes, the effects of day length and latitude on the internal clock are very similar (Salomé and McClung, 2005). In tropical climates, with little or no change in day length (and temperature at lower elevations) during the year, grapevines behave as evergreens with continuous growth and strong apical dominance, and often continuous fruit production, throughout the year (Dry and Coombe, 2004; Lavee and May, 1997; Mullins et al., 1992). With appropriate pruning strategies (and sometimes deliberate defoliation by hand, often in combination with imposed water deficit and sprays of ethephon or other chemicals to induce near-dormancy, followed by applications of hydrogen cyanamide to induce uniform budbreak), two crops can often be harvested each year in the tropics (Bammi and Randhawa, 1968; Favero et al., 2011; Lin et al., 1985). In temperate climates (and at high elevations in the tropics), where winter conditions prevent the survival of leaves, grapevines have a discontinuous cycle with alternating periods of growth and dormancy. Under these conditions, the time of active growth generally occurs from March/April to October/November (Northern Hemisphere) or September/October to April/May (Southern Hemisphere). Several distinct developmental stages or key events have been identified (Figures 2.1 and 2.2) and have been given a variety of names. These stages include dormancy, budbreak (budburst), bloom (anthesis or flowering), fruit set (berry set or setting), veraison (French vérer=to change: color change or onset of ripening), harvest (ripeness or maturity), and leaf senescence and subsequent fall (abscission). Although by definition no visible growth occurs during dormancy, metabolism does not rest completely, but high concentrations of the dormancy hormone abscisic acid (ABA) keep it at a minimum necessary for survival of the buds and woody tissues. Although the division of meristematic cells in the buds and cambium is blocked, chromosome duplication and protein synthesis resume during the later stages of dormancy in preparation for the activation of growth when temperature and soil moisture become favorable in spring.

Figure 2.1 Grapevine growth stages according to Baillod and Baggiolini (1993).

Figure 2.2 Grapevine growth stages according to Eichhorn and Lorenz. Reproduced from Coombe, B.G. (1995). Adoption of a system for identifying grapevine growth stages. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 1, 104–110, with permission by Wiley-Blackwell.

The annual growth cycle of mature, fruiting grapevines is often divided into a vegetative and a reproductive cycle.

2.2 Vegetative Cycle

In late winter or early spring, grapevines often exude xylem sap from pruning...

Produkt-Details

• Erscheint lt. Verlag: 19.1.2015
• Sprache: englisch
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Biochemie
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Botanik
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Ökologie / Naturschutz
• Themenwelt: Technik ► Lebensmitteltechnologie
• Themenwelt: Weitere Fachgebiete ► Land- / Forstwirtschaft / Fischerei
• ISBN-10: 0-12-420008-7 / 0124200087
• ISBN-13: 978-0-12-420008-1 / 9780124200081