Comprehensive Handbook of Iodine (eBook)

Nutritional, Biochemical, Pathological and Therapeutic Aspects

Gerard N. Burrow, Victor R Preedy, Ronald Ross Watson (Herausgeber)

eBook Download: EPUB

2009 | 1. Auflage
1334 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-08-092086-3 (ISBN)

Infos

Over two billion people worldwide are at risk for the spectrum of disorders known as 'The Iodine Deficiency Disorders.' 1-10% will suffer cretinism; 5-30% will have some sort of brain damage or neurological impairment and 30-70% will be hypothyroid.
The causes of iodine deficiencies can be considered from both simplistic and more complex perspectives: From the leaching of iodine from soil resulting in crops with low iodine content to malnutrition resulting in impaired iodine absorption. Poor dietary diversification and impoverished socio-economic development can also lead to iodine deficiencies.
Although it is possible to diagnose and treat deficiencies, there is still an ongoing dialogue regarding the detailed molecular pathology of iodine homeostatis, how hypothyroidism impacts the body tissues, and efficient diagnosis and treatment of the Iodine Deficiency Disorders.
This Handbook provides a resource of information on the various pathways and processes based on different countries or diseases. Because there is a constant flow of new information on iodine and related disorders, the goal of this Handbook is to provide a base of scientific information upon which additional knowledge can be applied.
Key Features:
*Provides important information on one of the most common micro-nutrient deficiencies in the world, the most important 'single nutrient-multiple consequences' paradigm today
*Includes information on iodine-related diseases, including those that are common, preventable and treatable
*Provides insight from a broad perspective of viewpoints -- from subcellular transports to economic impact

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Over two billion people worldwide are at risk for the spectrum of disorders known as "e;The Iodine Deficiency Disorders."e; 1-10% will suffer cretinism; 5-30% will have some sort of brain damage or neurological impairment and 30-70% will be hypothyroid. The causes of iodine deficiencies can be considered from both simplistic and more complex perspectives: From the leaching of iodine from soil resulting in crops with low iodine content to malnutrition resulting in impaired iodine absorption. Poor dietary diversification and impoverished socio-economic development can also lead to iodine deficiencies. Although it is possible to diagnose and treat deficiencies, there is still an ongoing dialogue regarding the detailed molecular pathology of iodine homeostatis, how hypothyroidism impacts the body tissues, and efficient diagnosis and treatment of the Iodine Deficiency Disorders. This Handbook provides a resource of information on the various pathways and processes based on different countries or diseases. Because there is a constant flow of new information on iodine and related disorders, the goal of this Handbook is to provide a base of scientific information upon which additional knowledge can be applied. - Provides important information on one of the most common micro-nutrient deficiencies in the world, the most important "e;single nutrient-multiple consequences"e; paradigm today- Includes information on iodine-related diseases, including those that are common, preventable and treatable- Provides insight from a broad perspective of viewpoints -- from subcellular transports to economic impact

Inhalt

Front Cover 1
Comprehensive Handbook of Iodine: Nutritional, Biochemical, Pathological and Therapeutic Aspects 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 6
Foreword 14
Contributors 16
Section 1: Analytical Techniques 24
Chapter 1. Determination of Iodine in Seawater: Methods and Applications 26
Abstract 26
Abbreviations 26
Introduction 26
Capillary Electrophoresis 27
Chromatography 29
Other Methods 33
Summary Points 35
References 35
Chapter 2. Assay of Iodine in Foodstuffs: Methods and Applications 38
Abstract 38
Abbreviations 38
Introduction 38
Obtaining Iodine Intake Data 39
Analytical Methods for Iodine Determination in Foodstuffs and Related Materials 41
Choice of an Analytical Method Versus the Iodine Level in Foodstuffs and Diets 46
Conclusions 48
References 48
Chapter 3. Determination of Iodine In Vivo and In Vitro by X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis: Methodology and Applications 52
Abstract 52
Abbreviations 52
Introduction 52
X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis 53
Preservation of In Vitro Samples 55
Choice of Analyzed Volume 56
Positioning 56
Calibration 57
Radiation Dose 57
Summary Points 58
References 59
Chapter 4. Plasma Analytes for Determination of Thyroid Status 62
Abstract 62
List of Abbreviations 62
Introduction 62
Thyroid Hormone Secretion 63
Measurement of Thyroid Hormones 64
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone 65
Investigation of Cause and Monitoring of Treatment 66
Tests Reflecting the Actions of Thyroid Hormones on Body Tissues 68
Tests not Used as Part of Routine Clinical Practice 68
Summary 68
References 68
Chapter 5. Interpretation of Thyroid Function Tests and Their Relationship to Iodine Nutrition: Changes in TSH, Free T4 and Free T3 Resulting from Iodine Deficiency and Iodine Excess 70
Abstract 70
Abbreviations 70
Introduction 71
General Interpretation of Thyroid Function Tests 71
Thyroid Function Tests in Iodine Deficiency 73
Thyroid Function Tests in Iodine Excess 75
Effect of Iron Deficiency on Iodine and Thyroid Function 76
Summary Points 76
References 77
Chapter 6. Thyroglobulin as an Indicator of Iodine Intake 78
Abstract 78
Abbreviations 78
Introduction 78
Thyroglobulin: The Major Iodoglycoprotein of the Thyroid Gland 79
Determination of Circulating Thyroglobulin 81
Thyroglobulin and Iodine Intake 82
Our Population Studies Concerning Iodine Intake and Serum Tg Concentrations 84
Summary Points 85
Acknowledgment 85
References 85
Chapter 7. Computer Systems for Monitoring Effects of Iodine/Thyroid Status in Populations 88
Abstract 88
Abbreviations 88
Introduction 88
TSH Screening in Neonates 89
Hospital Records 89
Example of Record Linkage 89
Example of a Specific Register Database 90
Summary Points 93
References 93
Section 2: General Aspects of Iodine Sources and Intakes in the Diet, Main Routes of Iodine Metabolism and Metabolic Roles 94
Section (2.1) Iodine Cycle and Chemistry 96
Chapter 8. Iodine in the Air: Origin, Transformation and Exchange to Mammals 98
Abstract 98
Abbreviations 98
Introduction 98
Sources and Measurements of Atmospheric Iodine 99
Photolysis and Gas-Phase Iodine Chemistry 99
Aerosol Chemistry and Particle Formation 101
Health and Environment Impacts 103
Radioactive Iodine: Atmospheric Sources and Consequences 103
Summary Points 104
References 105
Chapter 9. Iodine and Iodine Species in Seawater: Speciation, Distribution and Dynamics 106
Abstract 106
Abbreviations 106
Introduction 106
Distribution of Iodine Species in Seawater 107
Factors Controlling Speciation and Distribution in Seawater 110
Summary Points 113
References 113
Chapter 10. Geochemical Cycling of Iodine Species in Soils 116
Abstract 116
Abbreviations 116
Introduction 116
Materials and Methods 118
Results and Discussion 120
Summary Points 126
Acknowledgments 127
References 127
Chapter 11. Transfers of Iodine in the Soil–Plant–Air System: Solid–Liquid Partitioning, Migration, Plant Uptake and Volatilization 130
Abstract 130
Abbreviations 130
Introduction 130
Iodine in Soils 130
Behavior of Iodine in the Soil–Plant–Air System 131
Summary Points 139
References 139
Chapter 12. Iodine in the Ecosystem: An Overview 142
Abstract 142
The Customization of Life Histories 142
Iodine and Life in the Ocean 143
Iodine and Thyroid Function 143
Decoupling: Iodine in the Modern Era 144
Iodine: Its Implications for Disease and Therapy 144
Summary Points 145
References 145
Chapter 13. The Nature of Iodine in Drinking Water 148
Abstract 148
Abbreviation 148
Introduction 148
Early Investigations of Iodine in Drinking Water 148
Humic Substances in Marine Sediments and Groundwater 149
Aspects of Iodine Chemistry 150
Iodine in Marine Sediments and Water 150
Geological Influences on Aquifers 151
Geology: The Danish Example 151
Iodine in Drinking Water: The Danish Example 151
Iodine in Humic Substances 152
Iodine and Processing of Drinking Water 153
Bioavailability of Iodine in Humic Substances in Drinking Water 153
Goiter and Iodine in Humic Substances in Drinking Water 155
Conclusions and Perspectives 155
Summary Points 155
References 156
Chapter 14. Application of Iodine Water Purification Tablets: Iodine's Efficacy against Cryptosporidium parvum 158
Abstract 158
Abbreviations 158
Summary Points 160
References 161
Chapter 15. Iodine Speciation in Foodstuffs, Tissues and Environmental Samples: Iodine Species and Analytical Method 162
Abstract 162
Abbreviations 162
Introduction 162
Speciation of Iodine in Water 163
Chemical Speciation of Iodine in Air 166
Chemical Speciation of Iodine in Tissues and Biological Samples 167
Chemical Speciation of Iodine in Foodstuffs and Environmental Samples 168
Bioavailability and Toxicity of Iodine Species 170
Summary Points 171
References 172
Chapter 16. Iodine in Farm Animals 174
Abstract 174
Abbreviations 174
Introduction 175
Iodine Deficiency due to Low Iodine Intake and Iodine Antagonists 176
Requirements/recommendations for iodine supplementation 179
Response criteria and dose–response studies of iodine requirement in farm animals 179
The Effect of Iodine Intake on the Iodine Content of Eggs, Meat and Milk 184
Effects of Excessively High Dietary Iodine Intake on Farm Animals and Poultry 186
Summary Points 189
References 190
Chapter 17. Radiochemistry of Iodine: Relevance to Health and Disease 194
Abstract 194
Abbreviations 194
Introduction 194
Chemistry of Iodine: Relevance to Radiochemical Studies and Nuclear Properties of Iodine Isotopes 195
Production of Iodine Isotopes 197
Radiochemical Analysis of Iodine 198
Neutron Activation Analysis 200
Protection from Radioiodine Exposure under Nuclear Accident Conditions 203
Summary Points 203
References 204
Section (2.2) Physiology, Metabolism and Biochemistry 206
Chapter 18. Retention of Iodine in the Body: Biological Half-Life of Iodine in the Human Body 208
Abstract 208
Abbreviations 208
Introduction 208
Measuring the Biological Half-Life 209
Summary Points 214
References 214
Chapter 19. Mathematical Models of Human Iodine Metabolism, Including Assessment of Human Total Body Iodine Content 216
Abbreviations 216
The Riggs Model 216
Models of Iodine within the Thyroid Gland 216
Models of Peripheral Thyroid Hormone Distribution: Volume of Distribution 217
Models of Thyroid Hormone Distribution that include Rates of Peripheral Tissue Metabolism 217
Iodide Kinetics 218
Usefulness of these Models 219
Application of the Modeling Approach: Determination of Human Total Body Iodine 220
References 220
Chapter 20. Iodine Transfer Through Mother's Milk: The Influence of Bromide 222
Abstract 222
Abbreviations 222
Introduction 222
Bromine (Bromide) Essentiality vs. Toxicity 223
Influence of a High Bromide Intake in Lactating Rat Dams on Iodine and Bromide Transfer to the Suckling Through Mother's Milk 223
Effects of a High Bromide Intake in Lactating Rat Dams on Their Own Iodine Metabolism 224
Impact of a High Bromide Intake in Lactating Rat Dams on Their Performance During the Lactation Period 225
Impact of a High Bromide Intake in Lactating Rat Dams on the Well-being of Their Suckling 226
Summary Points 228
Acknowledgments 228
References 228
Chapter 21. Cellular Iodine Transport: Body Distribution of the Human Sodium Iodide Symporter 230
Abstract 230
Abbreviations 230
Introduction 230
Methods to Detect NIS Expression 231
The Sodium Iodide Symporter 232
Thyroid Gland 233
Mammary Gland 234
Placenta 234
NIS Expression in the Stomach and Kidney 235
Salivary and Lacrimal Glands 235
Other Tissues 235
Conclusion 236
Summary Points 236
References 236
Chapter 22. Sodium Iodide Symporter (NIS) in Gastric Mucosa: Gastric Iodide Secretion 238
Abstract 238
Abbreviations 238
Introduction 238
NIS Background 239
Gastric NIS Detection and Distribution 239
Gastric NIS during Development 240
Gastric Iodide Transport Mediated by NIS 240
Regulation of Gastric NIS 241
Functional Role of Gastric NIS 242
Gastric Cancer and NIS 242
Summary Points 242
References 243
Chapter 23. Regulation and Enhancement of Endogenous Sodium Iodide Symporter Expression: NIS Regulatory Pathways in Thyroid and Breast Cancer 244
Abstract 244
Abbreviations 244
Structure of the Human and Rat NIS Gene 245
Characterization of the NIS Upstream Enhancer 246
Transcriptional Regulation of NIS in Thyroid Cancer 246
NIS Gene Regulation in Breast Cancer 247
Enhancement of the NIS Expression in Tissue Culture Cells 247
TSH Receptor Stimulation in Thyroid Cells 247
Effects of Redifferentiation Agents on Thyroid NIS 250
NIS Expression in Lactating Mammary Glands 250
Enhancement of NIS Expression in Breast Cancer Cells 250
NIS Expression in Placenta-Derived Cells 251
Summary Points 251
Acknowledgements 252
References 252
Chapter 24. Pendred's Syndrome: Deficiency in Iodide Transport 254
Abstract 254
Abbreviations 254
Introduction 254
Pendrin in the Kidney 261
Pendrin in the Inner Ear 261
Pendrin in Other Tissues 262
Summary Points 262
Acknowledgment 262
References 262
Chapter 25. Autoregulation of Thyroid Growth and Function by Iodine: Independent Regulation of the Thyroid Gland by Iodocompounds 266
Abstract 266
Abbreviations 266
Introduction 266
Thyroid Iodolipids 267
Iodolipid Effects: & #948
Iodolipid Effects: 2-Iodohexadecanal 269
Summary Points 269
References 270
Chapter 26. Is Iodine an Antioxidant and Antiproliferative Agent for the Mammary and Prostate Glands? 272
Abstract 272
Abbreviations 272
Introduction 272
Mammary and Prostate Similarities 273
Iodine in Normal Tissues 273
Reproductive Factors and Cancer Risk 274
Iodine in Neoplastic Glands 276
Summary Points 278
Acknowledgments 279
References 279
Chapter 27. Uncertainty of Iodine Particulate Deposition in the Respiratory Tract 282
Abstract 282
Abbreviations 282
Introduction 282
Particulate Deposition in the Respiratory Tract 283
Parameter Distributions 285
Uncertainty of Regional Deposition Fraction 287
Parameter Sensitivity Analysis 289
Comparison of Results with Other Investigators 291
Conclusions 295
Summary Points 295
References 295
Chapter 28. The Relationship between Thiocyanate and Iodine 298
Abstract 298
Abbreviations 298
Introduction 298
Thiocyanate and NIS 298
Thiocyanate and Tobacco Smoking 299
Interaction between Smoking and Iodine Intake 299
Thiocyanate and Iodine in Milk 299
Maternal Smoking and Iodine Nutrition of the Breast-Fed Child 301
Thiocyanate from Food: The Experience from Central Africa 302
Conclusion 303
Summary Points 303
References 303
Chapter 29. Environmental Perchlorate and the Thyroid 306
Abstract 306
Abbreviations 306
Summary Points 307
References 307
Chapter 30. Iodate and Perchlorate in Bottled Water: Methods for Discovery and Impact on Humans 310
Abstract 310
Abbreviations 310
Iodate 310
Perchlorate 311
Perchlorate Analysis: Premodern Era 311
Perchlorate Analysis: Modern Era 312
Perchlorate Analysis: Recent Advances 313
Perchlorate and Iodate in Water 314
Summary Points 316
References 316
Chapter 31. Dioxins, PCBs, and Iodine: Effects on Synthesis and Metabolism of the Iodine Containing Thyroid Hormones 318
Abstract 318
Abbreviations 318
Introduction 318
General Mechanisms of Action of Dioxins and Dioxin-Like PCBs 319
Effects of PCBs on Circulating Iodine Containing Thyroid Hormones 319
Summary Points 323
References 323
Chapter 32. Iodide Effects on the Thyroid: Biochemical, Physiological, Pharmacological and Clinical Effects of Iodide in the Thyroid 326
Abstract 326
Abbreviations 326
Introduction 326
Effects of Iodide on the Thyroid 327
Models for the Study of Iodide Action 328
Mechanism(s) of Action of Iodide 329
Clinical Significance of the Effects of Iodide 334
Summary Points 335
References 335
Chapter 33. Influences of Iodine on the Immunogenicity of Thyroglobulin 338
Abstract 338
Abbreviations 338
Introduction 338
Categories of Iodinated Pathogenic T-Cell Determinants in Tg 339
Iodine and Peripheral T-Cell Reactivity to Tg 341
Abs Recognizing Iodinated Determinants as Regulators of Tg-Specific T-Cell Reactivity 342
Does Tg Iodination Play a Role in the Pathogenesis of Human Thyroiditis? 343
Summary Points 344
Acknowledgment 344
References 344
Chapter 34. Goiter in the Elderly: The Role of Iodine 346
Abstract 346
Abbreviations 346
Introduction 346
Types and Causes of Goiters 346
Clinical Evaluation 347
Treatment 349
Summary Points 351
Acknowledgment 351
References 351
Section (2.3) Nutrition and Dietary Aspects 354
Chapter 35. Iodine Intake and Food Choice 356
Abstract 356
Abbreviations 356
Introduction 356
Iodine Content in Food 356
Main Dietary Sources of Iodine 356
Intake in Different Countries with Different Dietary Characteristics 357
Arctic Food Choice and Iodine Intake 358
Iodine Intake in Subjects with Different Dietary Patterns within a Country 358
Iodine Intake in Subjects with Special Diets 359
Conclusions 359
Summary Points 359
References 359
Chapter 36. Iodine Mineral Water and its Therapeutic Use in Health Resorts: Iodine Consumption from Natural Mineral Waters and its Effect on the Body 362
Abstract 362
Abbreviations 362
Introduction 362
Extrathyroidal Effect of Iodine Treatment 366
Summary 367
References 367
Chapter 37. The Iodine Content of Foods and Diets: Norwegian Perspectives 368
Abstract 368
Abbreviations 368
Introduction 368
Dietary Sources of Iodine 368
Iodine Recommendations 370
Studies Assessing Iodine Nutrition 370
Dietary Iodine Intake in Children 372
Thyroid Disorders 372
Iodine Nutrition in Norway 373
Summary Points 374
References 374
Chapter 38. Correlation between Soy Phytoestrogens and Thyroid Laboratory Parameters: Implications for Iodine Nutrition 376
Abstract 376
Abbreviations 376
Introduction 377
Soy Isoflavones 377
Isoflavonoids as Inhibitors of Thyroid Peroxidase 379
Soy Isoflavonoids and Deiodinases 379
Effect of Soy Isoflavonoids on Thyroid Hormone Transport 379
Soy Isoflavones and Hormone Signaling 379
How Thyroid Hormone Levels Correlate with Actual Soy Isoflavone Concentration in Children 380
The Effect of Short-Term Soy Consumption on Thyroid Hormone Levels 382
General Conclusion 385
Summary Points 385
References 385
Chapter 39. Knowledge of Iodine Nutrition 388
Abstract 388
Abbreviations 388
Introduction 388
Iodine Knowledge as a Process Indicator 389
Iodine Knowledge of Role Players 389
Assessment of Knowledge of Iodine Nutrition 391
Discrepancy between Iodine Knowledge and Behavior 392
The Role of Iodine Knowledge in Mandatory and Voluntary Iodization Programs 392
Improving Knowledge of Iodine Nutrition 392
References 393
Chapter 40. Iodine Metabolism and Parenteral Nutrition 394
Abstract 394
Abbreviations 394
Introduction 394
Iodine Metabolism and Requirements 395
Iodine Balance and Parenterally Fed Preterm Infants 396
Iodine Insufficiency 398
Cochrane Reviews 398
Iodine Excess 398
Iodinated Contrast Media and Central Venous Catheters 399
Iodinated Skin Disinfectants 399
Iodinated Contrast Media Exposure and Transient Hypothyroidism 400
UK Use of Iodine in Obstetric and Neonatal Units 400
Brain Development and Thyroxine 400
Transient Hypothyroxinemia and Preventative Strategies 401
Summary Points 401
Acknowledgments 402
References 402
Chapter 41. Iodine Content of Standard Infant Formula and Specialized Enteral Preparations 406
Abstract 406
Abbreviations 406
Introduction 406
Standard Formula for Term and Preterm Infants 407
Specialized Feeds for Phenylketonuria 407
Specialized Feeds for Tyrosinaemia 417
Specialized Feeds for Maple Syrup Urine Disease 418
Specialized Feeds for Methylmalonic Acidemia and Proprionic Acidemia 419
Specialized Feeds for Glutaric Aciduria Type I 420
Specialized Feeds for Isovaleric Acidemia and Disorders of Leucine Metabolism 420
Specialized Feeds for Homocystinuria 421
Specialized Feeds for Miscellaneous Disorders of Amino Acid Metabolism 421
Special Foods for Conditions of Intolerance 421
Summary Points 422
References 423
Section (2.4) Iodine Metabolism 424
Chapter 42. Trimester-Specific Changes in Maternal Thyroid Hormones: Implications for Iodine Nutrition 426
Abstract 426
Abbreviations 426
Introduction 426
Trimester-Specific Changes in Maternal Thyroid Hormones 429
Trimester-Specific Changes in Maternal Thyroid Hormones: Implications for Iodine Nutrition 430
Summary 431
Summary Points 431
Acknowledgments 431
References 431
Chapter 43. The Relationship between Population Iodine Statistics and Iodine Status of Individuals: A Possible Approach for More Comprehensive Characterization of Iodine Nutritional Status 434
Abstract 434
Abbreviations 434
Monitoring Iodine Status 434
Epidemiological Criteria for Assessing the Severity of IDD 435
Survey Methods Monitoring IDD 435
Controversies in Determining UI and Confounder for Assessing UI as a Risk Factor for Thyroid Diseases 435
Statistical Considerations 436
Current Global Iodine Population Status 437
Iodine Status in Different Age Groups 437
A Possible Approach for Full Characterization of Iodine Nutrition Status 437
Results of a Comprehensive Prospective Assessment of Iodine Status in Leipzig 438
What is the Meaning of Population Iodine Statistics (UI) for Individual Iodine Status? 442
Summary Points 442
References 442
Chapter 44. Variations in Iodine Excretion in Healthy Individuals 444
Abstract 444
Abbreviations 444
Introduction 444
Components of Variation 444
Variation in Urinary Iodine Excretion 445
Variation in Urinary Iodine Excretion and Studies of Iodine Nutrition 447
Conclusions 450
Summary Points 450
References 451
Chapter 45. Assessment of Iodine Intake and Iodine Status in Vegans 452
Abstract 452
Abbreviations 452
Introduction 452
Sources of Iodine in the Diet 452
Assessment of Iodine Intake in Vegans 454
Assessment of Iodine Status in Vegans 457
Conclusion 458
Summary Points 458
References 459
Chapter 46. Isotopes of Iodine in Thyroid and Urine: Source, Application, Level and Determination 460
Abstract 460
Abbreviations 460
Introduction 460
Sources and Production of Iodine Isotopes 460
Utilization of Iodine Isotopes 463
Level of Iodine Isotopes in Thyroid and Urine 464
Determination of Iodine Isotopes in the Thyroid and Urine 467
Radiation Risk of Radioisotopes of Iodine in Thyroid 468
Summary Points 469
References 469
Chapter 47. The U-Shaped Curve of Iodine Intake and Thyroid Disorders 472
Abstract 472
Abbreviations 472
Introduction 472
Iodine Deficiency and Disease 472
Diseases that may be More Common with a Higher Iodine Intake 474
Practical Consequences for Iodization Programs 475
Conclusion 477
Summary Points 477
References 477
Section 3: Pathological Aspects of Iodine Deficiency 480
Section (3.1) General Aspects of Pathology 482
Chapter 48. Iodine Deficiency: The Extent of the Problem 484
Abstract 484
Abbreviations 484
Introduction 484
Assessment Techniques: Measuring the Extent of the Problem 485
Historical Perspective on the Magnitude of Iodine Deficiency Throughout the World 486
Current Extent of Iodine Deficiency 486
Strategies for the Control of Iodine Deficiency 489
Conclusions 489
Summary Points 489
References 490
Chapter 49. Iodine Deficiency in Pregnancy: Iodine Deficiency and Supplementation in Pregnancy 492
Abstract 492
Abbreviations 492
Introduction 492
Pathophysiology of Iodine Deficiency in Pregnancy 492
Clinical Studies of Iodine Deficiency in Pregnancy 494
Iodine Requirements During Pregnancy 496
Current Studies of Iodine Status 496
Iodine Supplementation in Pregnancy 497
Conclusions 497
Summary Points 497
References 497
Chapter 50. Iodine Nutrition and Iodine Deficiency in Term and Preterm Newborns: Iodine Nutrition in Newborns 500
Abstract 500
Abbreviations 500
Introduction 500
Iodine Requirement in Neonates 501
Role of Thyroid Hormones during Neonatal Life 501
Effects of Thyroid Hormones on the Human Central Nervous System during Fetal and Postnatal Life 501
Iodine Deficiency and Thyroid Function in Newborns 502
Iodine Content in Human Milk 502
Iodine Content in Premature and Infant Formulas: Iodine Intake in Newborns 502
Iodine Excretion into the Urine 503
Iodine Intake and Thyroid Function 503
Iodine Deficiency in Preterm Babies Born at less than 30 Weeks of Gestation and Alterations in their Neurodevelopment 504
Excess of Iodine during the Neonatal Period 505
Summary 505
Summary Points 507
References 507
Chapter 51. Oxidative Damage in Iodine Deficiency 510
Abstract 510
Abbreviations 510
Introduction 510
Oxidative Stress and the Thyroid Gland 511
Thyroid Hormones and Oxidative Stress 512
Iodine Deficiency and Oxidative Damage 512
Iodine Deficiency and Thyroid Malignancy 515
Summary Points 517
Acknowledgments 518
References 518
Chapter 52. Iodine Deficiency in Relation to Iron Deficiency and Parasitosis: Effect of Iron Status and Parasites on Iodine Deficiency Disorders 522
Abstract 522
Abbreviations 522
Introduction 522
The Challenge 523
Iodine Deficiency 524
Feto-Maternal Repercussions of Iodine Deficiency during Pregnancy and the Immediate Postnatal Period 524
Fe Status and Thyroid Metabolism 525
Iodine Deficiency and Parasitosis 527
Fe Deficiency and Parasitosis 527
Iodine and Fe Fortification and Parasitosis 532
Summary Points 533
References 533
Chapter 53. Iodine Deficiency and Thyroid Cancers: Effect of Iodine Prophylaxis on Thyroid Cancer Morphology 536
Abstract 536
Abbreviations 536
Introduction 536
General Features of Thyroid Cancer 537
Dietary Iodine and Thyroid Cancer 538
Summary Points 541
References 541
Chapter 54. Iodine Deficiency in Vegetarian and Vegan Diets: Evidence-Based Review of the World's Literature on Iodine Content in Vegetarian Diets 544
Abstract 544
Abbreviations 544
Introduction 544
Nomenclature, Types and Prevalence of Vegetarians 545
Demographic and Lifestyle Characteristics of Vegetarians 547
Iodine Content of Omnivore and Vegetarian Diets 547
Iodine Nutrition in Vegetarians 548
Discussion 551
Conclusion 552
Summary Points 552
References 552
Chapter 55. Relationship between Iodine Intake and Thyroid Size 556
Abstract 556
Abbreviations 556
Introduction 556
Thyroid Size Before and After Introduction of Iodine Fortification 556
Relationship Between Iodine Intake and Mean Thyroid Volume Between Countries/Populations 557
Relationship Between Iodine Intake and Thyroid Volume Within a Population 558
Relationship Between Various Measures of Iodine Intake and Thyroid Volume 558
Conclusion 559
Summary Points 559
References 559
Chapter 56. Thyroid Peroxidase Deficiency and Total Iodide Organification Defect 562
Abstract 562
Abbreviations 562
Introduction 562
TPO: Structure and Function 563
TPO: Polymorphisms and Mutations 564
Congenital Hypothyroidism due to TPO Deficiency 566
Summary Points 568
References 568
Chapter 57. Iodine Deficiency, Antioxidant Response and Mutagenesis in the Thyroid Gland: Antioxidant Response and Mutagenesis 572
Abstract 572
Abbreviations 572
Introduction 572
Substrates of Thyroid Hormone Metabolism: Iodine and H[sub(2)]O[sub(2)] 573
Antioxidant Response during Iodine Deficiency 574
Markers of Oxidative DNA Damage 575
Spontaneous Mutation in the Thyroid 577
DNA Damage in the Iodine-Deficient Thyroid 578
Consequences of a High Somatic Mutation Rate in the Thyroid 578
Conclusion 579
Summary Points 579
References 580
Chapter 58. Adaptation to Iodine Deficiency: Experimental Aspects: T4 and T3 in Plasma and Different Tissues 582
Abstract 582
Abbreviations 582
Introduction 582
Discussion 585
Conclusion 588
Possible Implications for Man 588
Summary Points 589
References 589
Chapter 59. Exercise and Iodine Deficiency 592
Abstract 592
Abbreviations 592
Introduction 592
Iodide Loss in Sweat 593
Effect of Iodine Supplementation 593
Magnitude of Iodine Loss 594
Conclusions 595
Summary Points 596
Acknowledgments 596
References 596
Chapter 60. Antibodies to Thyroid Peroxidase and Thyroglobulin in Iodine Deficiencies 598
Abstract 598
Abbreviations 598
Introduction 598
Intervention Studies on Iodine Intake 601
Intervention by Iodine Fortification of Salt in the Population 602
Comparative Epidemiological Studies on Thyroid Autoantibodies 603
Thyroid Autoantibodies in Iodine-Deficient Areas 605
Thyroid Autoantibodies in Iodine-Replete Areas 605
The Paradox of Iodine Intake and Thyroid Autoimmunity 606
Speculations on Possible Mechanisms behind Iodine Intake and Development of Antibodies 606
Summary Points 607
References 607
Chapter 61. Bromide Interference with Iodine Metabolism: Goitrogenic and Whole-Body Effects of Excessive Inorganic Bromide in the Rat 610
Abstract 610
Abbreviations 610
Introduction 610
Metabolism and Function of Bromide 611
Effects of Excessive Bromide on Iodine Metabolism in the Thyroid 612
Interference of Excessive Bromide with the Whole-Body Metabolism of Iodine 613
Dependence of the Excretion Rate of Bromide (Iodide) on Sodium Intake 616
Summary Points 617
Acknowledgments 618
References 618
Section (3.2) The Effects on the Brain and Neurological Aspect 620
Chapter 62. Iodine Deficiency and the Brain: An Overview 622
Abstract 622
Abbreviations 622
Introduction 622
Clinical Studies of Endemic Cretinism 622
Epidemiological Studies of Brain Damage due to Iodine Deficiency 623
Studies of Pathogenesis 623
Animal Models 625
Quantitative Estimates of Brain Damage in Iodine-Deficient Populations 626
Global Program for Elimination of Iodine Deficiency Disorders 627
Summary 627
References 628
Chapter 63. Iodine-Deficient Gestation and Neurodevelopment of 3-Year-Old Children 630
Abstract 630
Abbreviations 630
Introduction 630
Objectives 632
Subjects 632
Analytical Procedures 632
Statistical Analyses 632
Results 632
Discussion 635
Summary Points 636
References 637
Chapter 64. Experimental Models of Iodine Deficiency and Cretinism during Development: The Role of the Mother 638
Abstract 638
List of Abbreviations 638
Cretinism: Historical and Epidemiological Studies 638
The Maternal Transfer of T4 during Gestation: Experimental Studies 639
Iodine Deficiency during Development 641
The Human Brain Early in Gestation 641
Neurological Abnormalities in Iodine Deficiency 643
Summary Points 645
References 645
Chapter 65. The Effects of Hypothyroidism Due to Iodine Deficiency in Neonatal Brain: The Changes in Brain Metabolites Detected by Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 648
Abstract 648
Abbreviations 648
Introduction 649
Iodine Deficiency and Hypothyroxinemia 649
Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 651
Brain MRS Findings in Neonates with Hypothyroidism due to Intrauterine Iodine Deficiency: A Representative Study 653
Hypothyroidism and Major Cerebral Metabolites: Effects of Thyroxine Therapy on N-Acetyl Aspartate and Choline Levels 655
Summary 656
Summary Points 656
References 656
Chapter 66. The Deiodinase Type 2 (DIO2) Gene and Mental Retardation in Iodine Deficiency 658
Abstract 658
Introduction 658
Association Studies between the DIO2 Gene and Mental Retardation in Iodine-Deficient Areas 660
Results 661
Discussion 662
Summary Points 663
References 664
Chapter 67. DNA Damage in Brain and Thyroid Gland Cells due to High Fluoride and Low Iodine 666
Abstract 666
Abbreviations 666
Introduction 666
The Test Method for DNA Damage 667
Experimental Evidence for DNA Damage in Brain and Thyroid Gland Cells 667
What Can We Learn From These Studies? 669
References 671
Chapter 68. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders due to Iodine Deficiency: A Novel Iodine Deficiency Disorder Affecting the Offspring of Hypothyroxinemic Mothers 674
Abstract 674
Abbreviations 674
Introduction 674
About ADHD 675
ADHD and Iodine Deficiency 677
Summary Points 684
References 684
Chapter 69. Brain Iodine and Other Halogens of Control and Alzheimer's Diseased Patients: Brain Iodine Deficiency in Alzheimer's Disease 686
Abstract 686
Abbreviations 686
Introduction 686
Sample Preparation 688
Applied Techniques 688
Iodine 690
Bromine 691
Chlorine 692
Correlation Between Elements 693
Summary Points 695
References 695
Chapter 70. A Novel Iodine Deficiency Disorder: Gestational Hypothyroxinemia – How Safe is it for Progeny? 698
Abstract 698
Abbreviations 698
Introduction 698
Iodine Deficiency-Related Gestational Hypothyroxinemia 699
Why Should We Care about Iodine-Deficiency-Related Maternal Hypothyroxinemia? 703
Current Opinions of Iodine-Deficiency-Related Hypothyroxinemia: Comment and Criticism 705
Summary Points 706
References 706
Chapter 71. Iodine, Selenium Deficiency and Kashin–Beck Disease 708
Abstract 708
Abbreviations 708
Introduction 708
Iodine and Selenium Interactions and the Endocrine System 709
Kashin–Beck Disease 715
Concluding Remarks 719
Summary Points 721
References 721
Chapter 72. Iodine, Thyroid Diseases and Neuromuscular Dysfunction 724
Abstract 724
Abbreviations 724
Introduction 724
Normal Iodine and Thyroid Physiology 725
Neuromuscular Dysfunction of Thyroid Dysfunction Pathophysiology 726
Hyperthyroidism and Neuromuscular Dysfunction 727
Hypothyroidism and Neuromuscular Dysfunction 731
Acknowledgment 733
Summary Points 733
References 733
Chapter 73. Reduced Iodine Intake and Iodine Prophylaxis in Pregnancy: Importance of Hypothyroxinemia in the First Trimester of Gestation 736
Abstract 736
Abbreviations 736
Introduction 736
Effect of Early Maternal Hypothyroxinemia on CNS Development 737
Pregnant Women with Iodine Deficiency in Iodine-Sufficient Areas: How Common is Hypothyroxinemia in Pregnant Women in Developed Countries? 738
Diagnosis of Iodine Deficiency and Hypothyroxinemia in Pregnant Women 739
Options to Correct Iodine Deficiency and Hypothyroxinemia in Pregnant Women 740
Undesirable Consequences of Iodine Supplementation 741
Acknowledgment 742
Summary Points 742
References 742
Section 4: Prevention and Treatment of Iodine Deficiency Disorders 744
Chapter 74. The Role of the ICCIDD in the Global Program for the Elimination of Brain Damage Due to Iodine Deficiency 746
Abstract 746
Abbreviations 746
Introduction: Founding of the ICCIDD 746
The ICCIDD Network 747
The Activities of the ICCIDD 748
Sustainability 749
Conclusion 750
Summary Points 751
References 751
Chapter 75. Iodine Fortification: Some Industrial Initiatives and Concerns 754
Abstract 754
Abbreviations 754
Introduction 754
Iodine Fortification in Processed Foods 755
Forms of Iodine for Fortification and Issues in Fortification 759
Summary Points 761
Acknowledgment 761
References 761
Chapter 76. Labeling Techniques with [sup(123)]I: Application to Clinical Settings 764
Abstract 764
Abbreviations 764
Introduction 764
Criteria for the Choice of 123-Iodine 765
Labeling Techniques 766
Labeling Stability and Quality Control 774
Clinical Applications 774
Summary 778
References 778
Chapter 77. Effect of Iodine Restriction on Thyroid Function in Patients with Hashimoto's Thyroiditis 780
Abstract 780
Abbreviations 780
Introduction 780
Summary Points 783
References 784
Chapter 78. Effect of Lifelong Iodine Supplementation 786
Abstract 786
Abbreviations 786
Introduction 786
Studies from Adults with Lifelong Iodine Supplementation 787
Discussion and Conclusions 791
Summary Points 791
References 792
Chapter 79. Evaluating the Efficiency of Iodization Programs: Impact of Iodine Prophylaxis on Different Aspects of Life and Society 794
Abstract 794
Abbreviations 794
Introduction 794
Iodization Programs 795
Effects of Excess Iodine Supplementation 799
Limitations of Iodization Programs 799
Tasmania and Finland 799
Summary Points 800
References 801
Chapter 80. Net benefits of Active Iodine Prophylaxis over Silent Prophylaxis: Policy Implications Based on a Natural Experiment 802
Abstract 802
Abbreviations 802
Introduction 802
A Natural Experiment 803
Contribution of AP versus SP 803
Policy implications 809
Summary Points 809
Acknowledgment 809
References 809
Chapter 81. Treatment Regimens in Toxic and Diffuse Goiters in Iodine Deficiency: Goiter and Hyperthyroidism in Iodine Deficiency 812
Abstract 812
Abbreviations 812
Introduction 812
Treatment of Toxic Adenoma and Toxic Multinodular Goiter 813
Treatment of Hypofunctioning Thyroid Nodules and Euthyroid Diffuse Goiters 817
Summary Points 821
References 822
Chapter 82. Are there Side Effects when Using Supraphysiologic Levels of Iodine in Treatment Regimens? 824
Abstract 824
Abbreviations 824
Introduction 824
Iodine Chemistry 825
Nonthyronine Pharmacologic Activity 825
Clinical Trials with I[sub(2)] 827
Summary Points 832
References 832
Chapter 83. Iodization of Salt in Poland: Past and the Future 834
Abstract 834
Abbreviations 834
Introduction 834
History 835
Present 835
Effects of Iodine Prophylaxis in Poland 836
Summary Points 838
References 839
Chapter 84. Iodine Supplementation Fails to Target the Elderly: Perspectives from Austria 840
Abstract 840
Abbreviations 840
Introduction 840
Measurement of Urinary Iodine Excretion 841
Thyroid Ultrasonography 841
Results of Epidemiologic Studies in Austria 842
Discussion 844
Summary Points 845
References 845
Chapter 85. Healthcare Service Delivery in Achieving Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency Disorders: A Case Study, China 848
Abstract 848
Abbreviations 848
Introduction 849
The Role of the Health Sector 849
The Role of the Government 852
The Key Contributors to Success and Lessons for Reflection 854
Summary Points 856
References 857
Chapter 86. Evaluation of Iodine Prophylaxis in Czech Republic: Changes in Ioduria, Thyroid Status and Autoimmunity 858
Abstract 858
Abbreviations 858
Current Status of Iodine Deficiency 858
Improved Program of Iodine Prophylaxis in the Czech Republic 859
System of Re-evaluation of Effects of the Improved Program 861
Influence of Thyroid Autoimmunity 861
Summary and Conclusions 865
Summary Points 866
References 867
Chapter 87. The Effects of Salt Iodization on Normal Thyroid Physiology and Graves' Disease in India 870
Abstract 870
Abbreviations 870
Introduction 870
Change in Thyroid Iodine Kinetics 871
Change in Radioactive Iodine Uptake by the Thyroid 872
Change in Serum Thyroid Hormone Levels 872
Effect on Graves' Disease 872
Iodine-Induced Thyrotoxicosis 873
Thyroid Cancer 873
Summary Points 873
References 874
Section 5: Damage and Disease due to Iodine Toxicity 876
Chapter 88. Developmental Effects of Toxic Doses of Iodine 878
Abstract 878
Abbreviations 878
Introduction 878
Developmental Toxic Effects of Excess Maternal Iodine Exposure 879
Alterations of Maternal–Fetal Thyroid Hormone Metabolism Induced by Iodine Excess 883
Modulation of Expression Pattern of Hox Genes by TH in Bone Differentiation, Growth and Development 884
Summary Points 885
References 886
Chapter 89. Thyroiditis and Salt Iodization: Effect of Dietary Iodine on the Prevalence of Histological Autoimmune Thyroiditis 888
Abstract 888
Abbreviations 888
Introduction 888
Autoimmune Thyroiditis: General Features 889
Iodine Prophylaxis and Thyroiditis 889
Thyroiditis and Thyroid Cancer 890
Summary Points 891
References 891
Chapter 90. Detrimental Effects of Increasing Iodine Supply: Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism, Following Iodine Prophylaxis 894
Abstract 894
Abbreviations 894
Introduction 894
The Thyroid Can Compensate for High Amounts of Iodine 894
Detrimental Effects of Increased Iodine Supply 895
Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism 895
The First Observations on IIH 895
More Data on IIH Related to Iodine Prophylaxis 895
IIH Related to Intensification of Iodine Prophylaxis 897
IIH Underlying Mechanisms 897
Conclusions 898
Summary Points 898
References 898
Chapter 91. Experimental Studies on the Effect of Excessive Iodine Supplementation on the Thyroid Tissue 900
Abstract 900
Abbreviations 900
Introduction 900
Impact of Chronic Excessive Iodine Supplementation on Wistar Rats at Normal Iodine Baseline 900
Effects of Chronic Excessive Iodine Supplementation on Thyroid from Wistar Rats at Deficient Iodine Baseline 904
Effects of Chronic Excessive Iodine Supplementation on the Thyroid from NOD.H-2[sup(h4)] Mice at Normal Iodine Baseline 905
Effects of Chronic Excessive Iodine Supplementation on the Thyroid from NOD.H-2[sup(h4)] Mice at Deficient Iodine Baseline 907
Summary Points 908
References 908
Chapter 92. Frequency, Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism 910
Abstract 910
Abbreviations 910
Introduction 910
Frequency of Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism 911
Pathogenesis of Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism 912
Prevention of Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism 916
Treatment of Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism 916
Summary Points 917
References 918
Chapter 93. Iodine-Induced Toxic Effects due to Seaweed Consumption 920
Abstract 920
Abbreviations 920
Introduction 920
Iodine Content in Edible Seaweeds 921
Iodine-Induced Thyroid Disorders 922
Goiter, Hypothyroidism and Hashimoto's Thyroiditis Following Seaweed Consumption 924
Thyrotoxicosis due to Ingestion of Seaweed or Seaweed-Containing Dietary Supplements 927
Summary Points 930
Acknowledgments 930
References 930
Chapter 94. The Toxicology of Iodate: A Literature Survey in View of Its Use in Iodized Salt 932
Abstract 932
Abbreviations 932
Introduction 932
Physical and Chemical Properties of Iodate 933
Iodate in Human Food 934
Human Exposure at Recommended Doses of Iodate 934
Metabolism and Kinetics of Iodate 934
Government Regulatory Acts and Manufacturers' Recommendations 935
Toxicity of Iodates 935
Discussion and Assessment of Hazard 938
Summary Points 940
Acknowledgment 940
References 940
Chapter 95. Iodine-Containing Compounds: Use in Patients with Documented Adverse Reactions 942
Abstract 942
Abbreviations 942
Introduction 942
Types of Iodine Reactions 942
Iodine-Containing Products 943
Summary Points 948
References 948
Chapter 96. Influence of Iodine-Containing Pharmaceuticals on Iodine Status and Thyroid Function: Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism and Hypothyroidism 950
Abstract 950
Abbreviations 950
Introduction 950
Effects of Excessive Iodine Intake on Thyroid Hormone and Thyroid Function 950
Iodine-Containing Pharmaceuticals that Induce Thyroid Dysfunction 951
Prevention of Thyroid Dysfunction due to Iodine-Containing Drugs 956
Summary Points 956
References 957
Chapter 97. Two Unusual Situations of Excess Iodine Ingestion: A Faulty Iodinator and the US Space Program 960
Abbreviations 960
American Peace Corps Volunteers in Niger, West Africa 961
American Astronauts in the US Space Program 961
Summary Points 962
References 962
Section 6: Radiodine in the Non-Iodine Deficient Subject 964
Chapter 98. The Use of [sup(131)]Iodine in the Treatment of Graves' Disease in Children 966
Abstract 966
Abbreviations 966
Introduction 966
Childhood Hyperthyroidism 966
[sup(131)]I Therapy 967
Surgical Options 973
The Use of Antithyroid Medications 973
Treating Children with Graves' Disease 974
Summary Points 975
Addendum 975
References 976
Chapter 99. A Low-Iodine Diet Prior to Radioiodine Administration in the Management of Differentiated Thyroid Cancer 980
Abstract 980
Abbreviations 980
Introduction 980
Preparation for Radioiodine Scans and Therapy, and the Rationale for a Low-Iodine Diet 981
Evidence for the Benefit of a Low-Iodine Diet 981
Low-Iodine Diet in Combination with rTSH and Thyroid Hormone Replacement Prior to Radioiodine Administration 983
Duration of the Low-Iodine Diet 983
The Impact on Patients of Following a Low-Iodine Diet 983
The Content of a Low-Iodine Diet 984
Conclusion 986
Summary Points 986
References 986
Chapter 100. Use of 131-Iodine and the Risk of Radiation Exposure: Potential Hazards to the Patient and Other People 988
Abstract 988
Abbreviations 988
Introduction 989
131-Iodine and Radiobiology 989
Medical Use of 131-Iodine 990
Modes of Radiation Exposure 991
Risks Associated with Non-Intended Radiation Exposure to the Patient 992
Risk of Radiation Exposure to Members of the Public, Caregivers and Relatives 994
Recommendations of Radiation Protection Authorities 997
Summary Points 999
References 999
Chapter 101. The Sodium Iodide Symporter (NIS): NIS-Mediated Radioiodide Therapy 1002
Abstract 1002
Abbreviations 1002
Introduction 1002
The Sodium Iodide Symporter as the Molecular Basis for Radioiodine Treatment of Thyroid Cancer 1004
The Sodium Iodide Symporter and Its Potential as a Therapeutic Gene 1004
Unselective NIS Gene Transfer 1005
Tumorselective NIS Gene Transfer 1006
Application of Alternative Radionuclides Following NIS Gene Transfer 1007
The Sodium Iodide Symporter in the Mammary Gland and Its Possible Clinical Relevance 1008
Summary Points 1010
References 1010
Chapter 102. Using Retinoids to Increase Radioiodine Uptake in Thyroid Cancer: Role as Potential Redifferentiation Agents 1014
Abstract 1014
Abbreviations 1014
Introduction 1014
Iodine Uptake by Thyroid Cells 1015
Retinoids 1016
Retinoids: Clinical Studies 1017
Summary 1020
References 1020
Chapter 103. The Use of Lithium as an Adjuvant in Radioactive Iodine Treatment of Thyroid Cancer 1024
Abstract 1024
Abbreviations 1024
Introduction/Background 1024
Approaches of Radioactive Iodine Treatment 1024
Methods of Optimization of Uptake and Retention of [sup(131)]I in Thyroid Tissue 1025
Optimization of Uptake 1025
Optimization of Retention: Role of Lithium 1025
Lithium Action in Thyroid Cancer 1026
Summary Points 1027
Acknowledgements 1028
References 1028
Chapter 104. [sup(131)]Iodine in Thyroid Cancer: Use of [sup(131)]I in the Diagnosis and Therapy of Differentiated Thyroid Carcinoma 1030
Abstract 1030
Abbreviations 1030
Introduction 1030
Patient-Specific Prognostic Factors 1031
Tumor-Specific Prognostic Factors 1032
Postsurgical [sup(131)]Iodine ([sup(131)]I) Remnant Ablation 1034
[sup(131)]I Therapy of Differentiated Thyroid Carcinoma 1035
Acute and Long-Term Effects of [sup(131)]I Therapy 1036
Early Effects of [sup(131)]I Treatment 1036
Late Effects of [sup(131)]I Treatment 1037
[sup(131)]I Imaging and Follow-Up 1038
[sup(131)]I Therapy of DTC: Outcomes 1039
Further Management 1042
Frontiers in Therapy of DTC 1043
Summary and Conclusions 1043
Summary Points 1044
References 1044
Section 7: Other Causes of Hypothyroidism 1048
Chapter 105. The Extent of Hypothyroidism in the United States 1050
Abstract 1050
Abbreviations 1050
Introduction 1050
Hypothyroidism in Adults 1050
Congenital Hypothyroidism and Adolescents 1052
Postpartum Hypothyroidism 1053
Hypothyroidism in Older Adults 1053
Summary Points 1054
References 1054
Chapter 106. Hypothyroidism in the Middle Aged and Elderly: Clinical Aspects 1056
Abstract 1056
Abbreviations 1056
Introduction 1056
Ageing and Thyroid Function 1056
Epidemiology 1057
Etiology 1057
Clinical Manifestations 1058
Biochemical Diagnosis 1059
Etiologial Diagnosis 1060
Summary Points 1060
References 1061
Chapter 107. Hypothyroidism in the Middle Aged and Elderly: Therapeutical Aspects – Iodine Defect or Excess May Cause Hypothyroidism 1064
Abstract 1064
Abbreviations 1064
Replacement Treatment of Hypothyroidism 1064
Adverse Effects of Levothyroxine 1065
Control of Patients with Hypothyroidism 1065
Treatment of Subclinical Hypothyroidism 1065
Severe Hypothyroidism and Myxedema Coma 1067
Hypothyroidism and Surgery 1067
Screening for Hypothyroidism 1068
Summary Points 1069
References 1069
Chapter 108. Brain Damage in Clinical Hypothyroidism in Childhood 1070
Abstract 1070
Abbreviations 1070
Introduction 1070
Clinical Neurological Findings of Hypothyroidism in Children 1071
Neuropathological Findings in Hypothyroidism 1074
Neuroimaging in Hypothyroidism 1074
Molecular Biology 1076
Summary Points 1076
References 1077
Chapter 109. Hypertension and Hypothyroidism: A Thyroid Dysfunction Frequently Associated with Abnormal Dietary Iodine Intake 1080
Abstract 1080
Abbreviations 1080
Introduction 1081
Hypertension and Hypothyroidism as Individual and Combined Disorders 1081
Thyroid Hormone Action within the Heart and Vascular System: from Cellular to Hemodynamic Effects 1085
Mechanisms of Disease Underlying the Hypertensive and Hypothyroid States 1088
Conclusions and Perspectives 1092
Summary Points 1092
References 1093
Chapter 110. Heart Failure, Iodine Intake and Thyroid Hormones 1096
Abstract 1096
Abbreviations 1096
Introduction 1097
Heart Failure: The Evolving Interpretative Model of Its Progression 1097
Thyroid Hormone Action on Cardiomyocytes and Vascular Cells 1098
Thyroid Hormones in Heart Failure: Experimental Evidence 1099
Thyroid and Heart Failure: Clinical Evidence 1100
Treatment of Heart Failure with Synthetic Thyroid Hormone 1104
Perspectives and Conclusions 1106
Summary Points 1107
References 1107
Chapter 111. Skeletal Muscle Changes in Hypothyroidism 1110
Abstract 1110
Abbreviations 1110
Introduction 1111
Classification of Motor Units 1111
Motoneurons 1111
Neuromuscular Junction 1112
Skeletal Muscles 1114
Mechanisms for Thyroid Hormone Effects on Motor Units 1121
Summary Points 1121
Acknowledgments 1122
References 1122
Chapter 112. Ocular Aspects of Hypothyroidism: Neuro-Ophthalmological Dysfunction in Relation to Thyroid Disease and Iodine 1126
Abstract 1126
Abbreviations 1126
Introduction 1126
Search Strategy 1126
Iodine and Thyroid Disorders 1126
Investigations in Thyroid Eye Disorders 1127
Eyelid Disorders 1128
Visual Function 1130
Ophthalmoplegia 1132
Other Aspects 1132
Summary Points 1133
References 1133
Chapter 113. Pregnancy and Hypothyroidism: Autoimmune Thyroiditis and Iodine Deficiency Complicating Mother and Fetus 1136
Abstract 1136
Abbreviations 1136
Introduction 1136
Hypothyroidism and Pregnancy 1137
Conclusions 1143
Summary Points 1143
References 1143
Chapter 114. How the Public and Private Sectors Have Successfully Come Together in Efforts to Universally Iodize Salt 1146
Abstract 1146
Abbreviations 1146
Introduction 1146
Universal Salt Iodization 1146
Partnerships 1147
Why Partnerships Are Essential in Universal Salt Iodization 1147
Key Factors for Successful Public–Private Partnerships in USI 1148
Moving Forward 1149
Conclusion 1149
Summary Points 1149
References 1150
Chapter 115. Iodine Status Reflected by Urinary Concentrations: Comparison with the USA and Other Countries 1152
Abstract 1152
Abbreviations 1152
Introduction 1152
Urinary Iodine Concentrations in the United States and Other Countries 1153
Summary 1158
Summary Points 1159
Acknowledgments 1159
References 1159
Chapter 116. Iodine Intake in the European Elderly 1162
Abstract 1162
Abbreviations 1162
Introduction 1162
Methods of Assessment 1162
Surveys of Iodine Intake in the Elderly 1163
Dietary Supplements 1166
Impressions from Dietary Surveys 1166
Conclusion 1168
Summary Points 1168
References 1168
Chapter 117. Iodine Deficiency in Pregnant Women in England 1170
Abstract 1170
Abbreviations 1170
Background 1170
Urinary Iodine Excretion (UIE) in northeast England 1172
Summary Points 1174
References 1174
Chapter 118. Epidemiology of Thyroid Disorders in Germany 1176
Abstract 1176
Abbreviations 1176
History of Iodine Deficiency in Germany 1176
Current Findings 1177
Problems and Challenges of Iodine Fortification in Germany 1178
Perspectives 1179
Conclusions 1179
Summary Points 1179
Acknowledgment 1179
References 1179
Chapter 119. Surveillance of Thyroid Disorders and Iodine Intake in the Danish Population before and after Mandatory Iodide Fortification of Salt: The DanThyr Program 1182
Abstract 1182
Abbreviations 1182
Report on Iodine Deficiency in Denmark 1184
Fortification of Salt with Iodine in Denmark 1184
Monitoring of Iodine Intake and Thyroid Disorders: The DanThyr Study 1185
The DanThyr Cohort Study 1186
Status before Salt Iodization 1186
Status after Salt Iodization 1187
The DanThyr Registry of Overt Hypo- and Hyperthyroidism 1188
Incidence of Overt Hyperthyroidism after Iodine Fortification of Salt 1188
Incidence of Overt Hypothyroidism after Iodine Fortification of Salt 1189
Central Registry for Surgical and Medical Treatment 1189
Conclusion 1190
Summary Points 1190
References 1190
Chapter 120. Iodine Nutrition in Bulgaria: Results from the National Strategy for Elimination of Iodine Deficiency Disorders in Bulgaria – Epidemiologic Studies on Risk Population Groups 1192
Abstract 1192
Abbreviations 1192
Introduction 1192
Dynamics of IDD in Bulgaria Assessed on the Basis of Urinary Iodine Concentration and Goiter Prevalence 1193
Iodine Nutrition in Schoolchildren Living in Urban and Rural Areas in South Bulgaria 1195
Environmental Factors Stimulating the Manifestation of IDD 1197
Summary Points 1199
References 1200
Chapter 121. Iodine Status in Individuals: An Italian Perspective 1202
Abstract 1202
Abbreviations 1202
Introduction 1202
Description of the Region 1203
Spectrum of Thyroid Disease in the Calabrian Adult Population 1203
Endemic Goiter and Iodine Supply in Calabria at the End of the Twentieth Century 1203
Distribution of Goiter Prevalence in Different Areas of the Region 1204
Distribution According to Sex, Age and Grade of Goiter 1204
Urinary Iodine Excretion in Calabria 1204
Use of Screening for Congenital Hypothyroidism Results for Monitoring Iodine Deficiency 1205
Relationship between Neonatal TSH and Endemic Goiter 1206
Endemic Goiter and Iodine Supply in Calabria at the Beginning of the Third Millennium 1207
Summary Points 1207
References 1207
Chapter 122. Dietary Iodine Intake in the Ukraine 1208
Abstract 1208
Abbreviations 1208
Introduction 1208
Summary Point 1213
Acknowledgment 1213
References 1213
Chapter 123. Iodine Status in Individuals: An Argentine Perspective 1214
Abstract 1214
Introduction 1214
Argentine Regions 1215
Summary Points 1223
References 1224
Chapter 124. Iodization of Salt: The Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders in Brazil 1226
Abstract 1226
Abbreviations 1226
Introduction 1226
Iodine Deficiency 1227
Iodine Supplementation: Salt Iodization 1230
Overview and Current Actions 1231
Conclusions 1233
Summary Points 1233
References 1234
Chapter 125. Effects of an Increased Iodine Intake on Thyroid Diseases: Epidemiological Study from China 1236
Abstract 1236
Abbreviations 1236
Introduction 1236
More than Adequate and Excessive Iodine Intake would Increase the Incidence of Hypothyroidism 1237
More than Adequate and Excessive Iodine Intake would Increase the Incidence of Autoimmune Thyroiditis 1239
More than Adequate and Excessive Iodine Intake would Accelerate the Development of Hypothyroidism in an Autoimmune Thyroiditis Population 1239
Iodine Excess Promoted the Development of Overt Hyperthyroidism in GD Family Members 1240
Iodine Excess and Thyroid Nodules 1241
More than 600& #956
Serum Thyrotropin Levels Increased as Levels of Iodine Intake Rose 1241
The Upper and Lower Limits of Serum Thyrotropin within the Safety Range 1241
Summary Points 1243
References 1243
Chapter 126. Iodine Deficiency Disorders in Thailand 1244
Abstract 1244
Abbreviations 1244
History 1244
Implementing Measures 1245
Water Iodization 1246
Other Iodine Fortified Food 1246
Advocacy and Communication (IEC Activity) 1246
Policy and Commitment 1247
Current Status of IDD 1247
Problems and Constraints 1248
The Way Ahead 1248
Current Activities 1248
Strategies in the Master Plan 1248
Summary Points 1249
References 1249
Chapter 127. The Current State of Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD) in Australia and the Pacific States 1250
Abstract 1250
Abbreviations 1250
Introduction 1250
Australia and New Zealand 1251
The Australian National Iodine Nutrition Study 1252
Iodine Deficiency in New Zealand 1253
Papua New Guinea 1253
Philippines 1254
Vanuatu 1254
Other Pacific Islands 1254
Summary Points 1254
References 1255
Chapter 128. History of Iodine Deficiency in Schoolchildren in Tasmania, Australia 1256
Abstract 1256
Abbreviations 1257
Introduction 1257
Population Surveys to Assess Iodine Status in Tasmania (1998–2007) 1259
Evaluation of Survey Findings 1261
Implications 1266
Summary Points 1271
Acknowledgements 1271
References 1271
Chapter 129. Iodine Status and Deficiency Disorders in New Zealand 1274
Abstract 1274
Abbreviations 1274
Introduction 1274
Iodine Intake in New Zealand 1274
Iodine Status of the New Zealand Population 1276
The Etiology of Iodine Deficiency in New Zealand 1279
Possible Solutions 1279
Summary Points 1280
References 1280
Chapter 130. Iodine Nutrition in Pregnancy: Meeting Iodine Requirements in the Diets of Pregnant Women 1282
Abstract 1282
Abbreviatons 1282
Dietary Iodine Requirements in Pregnancy 1282
Assessing Iodine Intakes in Pregnant Women 1283
Meeting Dietary Iodine Requirements in Pregnancy 1283
Improving Iodine Intakes in Pregnant Women with Supplementation 1284
Good Dietary Sources of Iodine for Pregnant Women 1284
Salt Use in Pregnancy 1285
Dietary Recommendations for Pregnant Women 1285
Conclusion 1286
Summary Points 1286
References 1286
Chapter 131. Iodine Deficiency Disorders in Mali 1288
Abstract 1288
Abbreviations 1288
Introduction 1288
Prevalence of IDD in Mali 1288
Etiology 1289
Social–Anthropological Aspects of IDD 1291
Prevention and Treatment of IDD in Mali 1291
Summary points 1292
References 1292
Chapter 132. Nutritional, Endocrine and Pathological Aspects of Iodine Deficiency Disorders in India 1294
Abstract 1294
Abbreviations 1294
Introduction 1294
IDD: A Public Health Problem in India 1295
National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control Program 1295
Progress on Iodized Salt Production in India 1295
Household Coverage of Iodized Salt in India 1295
Endocrine Aspects of Iodine Deficiency and its Control 1296
Discussions 1299
Lessons Learnt from the NIDDCP 1300
Conclusion 1300
Summary Points 1301
References 1302
Index 1304
A 1304
B 1305
C 1306
D 1308
E 1310
F 1311
G 1312
H 1313
I 1314
J 1319
K 1319
L 1319
M 1320
N 1322
O 1323
P 1323
Q 1326
R 1326
S 1327
T 1330
U 1333
V 1334
W 1334
X 1335
Z 1335

Produkt-Details

• Erscheint lt. Verlag: 17.3.2009
• Sprache: englisch
• Themenwelt: Sachbuch/Ratgeber ► Gesundheit / Leben / Psychologie
• Themenwelt: Medizin / Pharmazie ► Allgemeines / Lexika
• Themenwelt: Medizin / Pharmazie ► Gesundheitsfachberufe ► Diätassistenz / Ernährungsberatung
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie
• Themenwelt: Technik ► Lebensmitteltechnologie
• Themenwelt: Weitere Fachgebiete ► Land- / Forstwirtschaft / Fischerei
• ISBN-10: 0-08-092086-1 / 0080920861
• ISBN-13: 978-0-08-092086-3 / 9780080920863