Oceans and Health: (eBook)

Pathogens in the Marine Environment

Shimshon Belkin, Rita R. Colwell (Herausgeber)

eBook Download: PDF

2006 | 2005
XIV, 464 Seiten
Springer New York (Verlag)
978-0-387-23709-1 (ISBN)

Infos

It is surprising how little is actually known about the fate of wastewater bacteria once they enter the sea. This wide-ranging work is one of the first to unravel the mechanisms determining bacterial sensitivity or survival under these conditions.

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The importance of combating infectious diseases has received international attention, p- viding the opportunity for a multidisciplinary approach that combines medicine with other scienti?candtechnologicalcapabilities,notablyinformationtechnology,nanotechnology,and biotechnology. In fact, it has been predicted that the future will bring a merging of these te- nologies with the cognitive and behavioral sciences-major forces that have the potential to balancetheworld'sinequities.Thescienti?ccommunityandworldleadersmustworktogether to use knowledge and its applications to improve the condition of the planet. The connection between infectious diseases and the oceans provides a paradigm for this perspective. A stark global context indisputably frames all human health issues in the twenty-?rst century: the world wide movement of people and goods. Throughout the past half century, international travel has skyrocketed; there are more than 500 million international arrivals per year. The greatest increase has taken place since the mid-1990s. The world has become integrated and global; consequently, the notion that it is possible to successfully eradicate a disease from the face of the planet has become simplistic. Infectious disease is a moving target and climate shifts will affect any disease that has an environmentally sensitive stage or vector. Recognizingsignalsfromclimatemodelsandincorporatingthemintohealthmeasurescanp- videnewopportunitiesforproactive-ratherthanreactive-approachestopublichealth.Thus, careful attention to the role of the oceans in human health can offer new avenues of research that will provide new means of predicting and preventing those diseases that are rooted in the environment. In this volume, pathogens in the sea are reviewed by Colin Munn, who provides a broader perspective for the topic of pathogenic microorganisms associated with the world oceans.

Inhalt

Contributors 6
Preface 10
Contents 12
Pathogens in the Sea: An Overview 14
1.1. INTRODUCTION 14
1.2. MARINE MICROBES AND THEIR HABITATS 15
1.2.1. Size and Activity of Planktonic Microbes 16
1.2.2. Viability, Cultivability, and Diversity 17
1.2.3. Association of Microbes with Particles 18
1.2.4. Phototrophs, Heterotrophs, and Chemoautotrophs 18
1.2.5. Microbiology of Marine Sediments 20
1.2.6. Biofilms and Microbial Mats 20
1.2.7. Mutualistic Symbiotic Interactions 21
1.2.8. Pathogens of Marine Planktonic Microbes 24
1.2.9. Pathogens of Seaweeds and Marine Plants 25
1.2.10. Diseases of Invertebrates 27
1.2.11. Pathogens of Marine Fish 29
1.2.12. Pathogens of Marine Mammals 30
1.2.13. Pathogens of Humans 31
1.3. CONCLUSIONS 33
REFERENCES 34
Diversity, Sources, and Detection of Human Bacterial Pathogens in the Marine Environment 42
2.1. INTRODUCTION 42
2.2. DIVERSITY AND ECOLOGY 43
2.2.1. Pathogenic Species 43
2.2.2. Environmental Associations 49
2.2.3. Abiotic Factors 50
2.3. ROUTES OF TRANSMISSION 51
2.3.1. Seafood Consumption 52
2.3.2. Seawater Exposure 53
2.3.3. Aerosol Exposure 53
2.3.4. Marine Zoonoses 53
2.4. INDICATORS FOR MARINE RISK ASSESSMENT 54
2.4.1. Indicators for Sewage Pollution 55
2.4.2. Indicators for Nonsewage Related Risk 55
2.5. DETECTION AND QUANTIFICATION 56
2.5.1. Culture-Based Methods 56
2.5.2. Immunological Methods 62
2.5.3. Nucleic-Acid-Based Methods 64
2.6. OUTLOOK 69
REFERENCES 70
Biotic and Abiotic Effects 82
3.1. INTRODUCTION 82
3.1.1. An Alien Environment 82
3.1.2. A Matter of Measurement 82
3.1.3. Experimental Design Issues 83
3.2. BIOTIC EFFECTS 83
3.2.1. Starvation and Competition for Scarce Nutrients 83
3.2.2. Predation and Grazing 84
3.2.3. Microbial Exudates 85
3.2.4. Bacteriophages 86
3.3. ABIOTIC EFFECTS 86
3.3.1. Sunlight 86
3.3.2. Temperature 92
3.3.3. pH 94
3.3.4. Salinity 94
3.3.5. Hydrostatic Pressure 95
3.3.6. Particle Association and Sedimentation 96
3.3.7. Previous Growth History 97
3.4. SUMMARY 97
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 98
REFERENCES 98
Survival of Enteric Bacteria in Seawater: Molecular Aspects 106
4.1. INTRODUCTION 106
4.2. GENES INVOLVED IN E. COLI SURVIVAL IN SEAWATER 106
4.3. GENE INDUCTION UPON EXPOSURE OF E. COLI TO SEAWATER 111
4.4. RNA PATTERN OF SEAWATER-INCUBATED E. COLI 111
4.5. E. COLI PROTEIN SYNTHESIS IN SEAWATER 112
4.6. DISCUSSION 114
4.6.1. The Importance of RpoS 114
4.6.2. Nutrient Limitation versus Osmotic Stress 115
4.6.3. The Role of Protein Synthesis in Seawater 115
4.6.4. Future Directions and Public Health Implications 116
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 117
REFERENCES 117
Human Pathogenic Viruses in the Marine Environment 121
5.1. INTRODUCTION 121
5.2. VIRUSES AND DISEASES 121
5.3. THE FATE OF ENTERIC VIRUSES IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT 123
5.3.1. Viruses in Seawater 125
5.3.2. Viruses in Marine Sediment 126
5.3.3. Virus Survival in the Sea 127
5.4. VIRUSES IN SHELLFISH 127
5.5. METHODS OF VIRUS DETECTION 130
5.5.1. Virus Concentration from Seawater and Marine Sediment 130
5.5.2. Virus Recovery from Shellfish 132
5.5.3. Specific Virus Detection Procedures 133
5.6. THE PROSPECTS FOR VIRUS STUDIES IN SEAWATER AND SHELLFISH 135
REFERENCES 137
Survival of Viruses in the Marine Environment 144
6.1. INTRODUCTION 144
6.2. FACTORS AFFECTING VIRUS SURVIVAL IN MARINEWATER 144
6.2.1. Types of Viruses 144
6.2.2. Temperature 145
6.2.3. pH 146
6.2.4. Light 146
6.2.5. Heavy Metals 147
6.2.6. Salts 147
6.2.7. Microflora 147
6.2.8. Macroflora 149
6.2.9. Solid–Water Interface 149
6.2.10. Air–Water Interface 150
CONCLUSIONS 151
REFERENCES 151
Zoonotic Protists in the Marine Environment 154
7.1. INTRODUCTION 154
7.2. ZOONOTIC PROTISTS 155
7.2.1. Flagellates 155
7.2.2. Apicomplexa 158
7.3. ADDITIONAL ORGANISMS OF INTEREST 168
REFERENCES 168
Marine and Estuarine Harmful Algal Blooms: Impacts on Human and Animal Health 175
8.1. INTRODUCTION 175
8.2. REVIEW OF THE MAJOR HAB GROUPS, TOXINS, ILLNESSES, AND IMPACTS ON LIVING RESOURCES 176
8.2.1. Dinoflagellates (Alexandrium, Gymnodinium catenatum, Pyrodinium bahamense), Saxitoxins, Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning, Animal Mortalities 177
8.2.2. Dinoflagellates (Karenia), Brevetoxins, Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning, Animal Mortalities 181
8.2.3. Dinoflagellates (Dinophysis and Prorocentrum), Okadaic Acid and Derivatives, Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning 183
8.2.4. Dinoflagellates (Gambierdiscus), Ciguatoxins, Ciguatera Fish Poisoning 184
8.2.5. Diatoms (Pseudo-nitzschia), Domoic Acid, Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning, Animal Mortalities 186
8.3. EMERGING HEALTH PROBLEMS 187
8.3.1. Dinoflagellates (Protoperidinium crassipes), Azaspiracid, Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning 188
8.3.2. Dinoflagellates (Alexandrium ostenfeldii), Spirolides 188
8.3.3. Dinoflagellates (Pfiesteria), Uncharacterized, Fish Kills 189
8.3.4. Dinoflagellates (Protoceratium reticulatum, Lingulodinium polyedrum), Yessotoxins, Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning 189
8.3.5. Dinoflagellates (Dinophysis), Pectenotoxins 190
8.3.6. Cyanobacteria (Lyngbya and Nodularia), Multiple Toxins, Human Health risks, Animal Mortalities 190
8.4. OTHERHABSPECIESCAUSINGIMPACTSONLIVINGRESOURCES 191
8.4.1. Raphidophytes (Chattonella, Fibrocapsa, Heterosigma), Reactive Oxygen Species, Brevetoxins, Fish Kills 192
8.4.2. Prymenesiophytes (Prymnesium, Chrysochromulina), Prymnesins, Fish Kills 193
8.4.3. Dinoflagellates (Cochlodinium), Reactive Oxygen Species, Fish Kills 194
8.4.4. Dinoflagellates (Heterocapsa), Uncharacterized, Shellfish Mortalities 194
8.5. MODES OF EXPOSURE 195
8.6. EMERGING ISSUES 196
8.6.1. Indirect Effects 196
8.6.2. Sublethal, Chronic, and Repeated Exposures 197
8.6.3. HABs as Potential Vectors for Pathogens and as Stressors for Disease 200
8.7. ANTHROPOGENIC INPUTS AND STRESSORS 202
8.8. METHODS FOR DETECTION 204
8.8.1. Harmful Algal Species 204
8.8.2. Toxins 206
8.9. MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 207
8.9.1. Prevention 207
8.9.2. Control 208
8.9.3. Mitigation 209
8.10. FUTURE 209
REFERENCES 210
Pathogenic Vibrio Species in the Marine and Estuarine Environment 226
9.1. INTRODUCTION 226
9.2. SPECIES PATHOGENIC FOR HUMANS IN SEAWATER 227
9.2.1. Isolation and Identification, Significant Virulence Properties, and Transmission Routes 227
9.2.2. Symptoms of Infection, Disease Features, and Clinical Treatment 236
9.3. VIBRIOS AND THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT 237
9.3.1. Influence ofWater Temperature, Salinity, and Nutrient Concentration 237
9.3.2. The Viable But Nonculturable State 238
9.3.3. Interactions with Living and Nonliving Substrates Present in Seawater 240
9.4. MOLECULAR METHODS TO DETECT THE PRESENCE OF VIBRIOS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES 245
9.5. CONCLUSIONS 247
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 248
REFERENCES 248
Vibrio vulnificus 262
10.1. Vibrio vulnificus 262
10.2. INTRODUCTION 262
10.3. TAXONOMY 263
10.3.1. Biotype 1 263
10.3.2. Biotype 2 264
10.3.3. Biotype 3 266
10.4. DISEASES CAUSED BY V. vulnificus (INCLUDING EPIDEMIOLOGY) 266
10.4.1. Gastroenteritis 266
10.4.2. Primary Septicemia 266
10.4.3. Wound Infections 269
10.5. PATHOGENESIS AND VIRULENCE FACTORS 270
10.5.1. Capsule 270
10.5.2. Lipopolysaccharide 271
10.5.3. Putative Virulence Factors 271
10.5.4. Biotypes 2 and 3 Strains 272
10.5.5. Host Factors 272
10.5.6. Problems in Understanding the Pathogenesis of V. vulnificus Infections 272
10.5.7. New Insights into the Regulation of Pathogenesis 273
10.6. DISTRIBUTION IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT 274
10.6.1. Seawater 274
10.6.2. Shellfish 274
10.6.3. Other Marine Sources 275
10.7. FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION IN THE ENVIRONMENT 276
10.7.1. Salinity 276
10.7.2. Temperature 276
10.7.3. The Viable but Nonculturable State 278
10.7.4. Other Physical/Chemical/Microbiological Factors 279
10.8. METHODS TO ELIMINATE V. vulnificus IN FOOD 279
10.9. SUMMARY 280
REFERENCES 280
Vibrio parahaemolyticus—Seafood Safety and Associations with Higher Organisms 286
11.1. INTRODUCTION 286
11.2. THE ORGANISM 286
11.3. CLINICAL DISEASE 287
11.4. INCIDENCE AND GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION 289
11.5. PATHOGENESIS AND VIRULENCE FACTORS 290
11.5.1. Kanagawa Phenomenon 290
11.5.2. Thermostable Direct Hemolysin 290
11.5.3. TDH-related Hemolysin 291
11.5.4. Urease Production 292
11.5.5. Other Putative Virulence Factors 292
11.6. SEAFOOD SAFETY 292
11.6.1. Ecology of V. parahaemolyticus 292
11.6.2. Seafood as a Medium of Survival and Transmission 293
11.7. IMMUNE RESPONSE 294
11.8. THE FIRST PANDEMIC V. parahaemolyticus 295
11.8.1. Origin and Global Spread of the Pandemic Strains 295
11.8.2. Markers of Pandemicity 296
11.8.3. Molecular Epidemiology 297
11.9. IMPACT OF THE PANDEMIC ON THE SEAFOOD INDUSTRY 299
REFERENCES 300
Global Microbial Ecology of Vibrio cholerae 305
REFERENCES 312
Gram-Positive Bacteria in the Marine Environment 314
13.1. INTRODUCTION 314
13.2. GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIA OF MEDICAL INTEREST THAT MAY BE PRESENT IN SEAWATER 315
13.2.1. Fecal Streptococci/Enterococci 315
13.2.2. Staphylococcus aureus 316
13.2.3. Listeriae 317
13.2.4. Bifidobacteria 317
13.2.5. Clostridium perfringens 318
13.2.6. Mycobacteria 318
13.3. SURVIVAL MECHANISMS OF GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIA IN SEAWATER 319
13.3.1. Starvation 319
13.3.2. Viable but Nonculturable State 320
13.3.3. Survival of Enterococci in Seawater 321
13.3.4. Survival of Listeria in Seawater 323
13.3.5. Survival of S. aureus in Seawater 324
13.4. DETECTION OF GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIA IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT: CULTURE- VERSUS NONCULTURE- BASED METHODS 325
13.4.1. General Culture Methods 326
13.4.2. Rapid Tests 326
13.4.3. Applications of the Enterococci Detection in Seawater by Molecular Methods 329
13.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRESENCE OF GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIA IN SEAWATER: EPIDEMIOLOGY AND RISK FOR HUMAN HEALTH 331
13.6. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS 332
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 333
REFERENCES 333
Fecal Contamination in Coastal Areas: An Engineering Approach 338
14.1. INTRODUCTION 338
14.2. WHY COULD FECAL MICROORGANISMS BE PRESENT IN COASTAL AREAS? 339
14.3. WHERE ARE THE FECAL MICROORGANISMS COMING FROM? 341
14.3.1. Permanent Fecal Fluxes 341
14.3.2. Pathogenic Microorganism Fluxes Resulting from Human Epidemics 343
14.3.3. Endemic Input: Example of STEC, Listeria spp. and Campylobacter 345
14.4. HOWARE FECAL MICROORGANISMS INTRODUCED INTO COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS? 346
14.4.1. Direct Outfall or Plume Dispersion in the Lake or Open Coast 347
14.4.2. Estuarine Mixing 348
14.5. SURVIVAL OF FECAL MICROORGANISMS IN SEAWATER 350
14.5.1. Behavior in the MarineWater 350
14.5.2. Behavior in Sediment 352
14.5.3. Applications of Models 353
14.5.4. Applications to Fecal Coliform Contamination 354
14.5.5. Application to Viral Contamination 354
14.6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 356
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 359
REFERENCES 359
Retention of Pathogenicity in Viable Nonculturable Pathogens 367
15.1. VIRULENCE FACTORS OF BACTERIA ENTERING INTO VBNC STATE 367
15.1.1. Vibrio cholerae 367
15.1.2. Vibrio vulnificus 368
15.1.3. Shigella dysentriae 369
15.1.4. Escherichia coli 369
15.2. RETENTION OF PATHOGENICITY DURING VBNC STATE ( TABLE 15.1) 370
15.2.1. Vibrio cholerae 370
15.2.2. Vibrio vulnificus 371
15.2.3. Shigella dysentriae 372
15.2.4. Escherichia coli 373
15.2.5. Other Vibrio spp. 373
15.3. CONSIDERATION FOR VBNC IN MICROBIOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT 374
REFERENCES 375
Thalassogenic Infectious Diseases Caused byWastewater Pollution of the Marine Environment: An Estimate of the Worldwide Occurrence 378
16.1. INTRODUCTION 378
16.2. GLOBAL BURDEN OF DISEASE: A NEW QUANTITATIVE APPROACH FOR EVALUATING THE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT OF DISEASE 379
16.2.1. How are Disability-Adjusted Life Years Calculated? 380
16.3. INFECTIOUS DISEASES RELATED TO BATHING/SWIMMING IN WASTEWATER POLLUTED MARINE COASTALWATERS 381
16.3.1. Epidemiological Background 381
16.3.2. What is the Attributable Risk of Suffering from an Excess Case of Gastroenteritis Disease and Acute Febrile Respiratory Infection from Marine Bathing in Fecally ContaminatedWaters? 382
16.3.3. Summary of the Assumptions and Estimated Excess Cases of Gastroenteritis/ Respiratory Disease Rates Caused by Bathing in MarineWater for Foreign Tourists and Local Residents 383
16.3.4. Estimate of Marine Bathing Days and Exposures/Year Globally 384
16.3.5. Calculating the GBD in Terms of DALYs 384
16.3.6. Economic Impact 385
16.4. INFECTIOUS DISEASES RELATED TO THE CONSUMPTION OF SEAFOOD/ FILTER- FEEDING BIVALVES HARVESTED IN WASTEWATER POLLUTED MARINE COASTALWATERS 385
16.4.1. Epidemiological Background 385
16.4.2. Sporadic Transmission of Infectious Hepatitis during Non- Epidemic Periods 388
16.4.3. The Scientific Basis for the Quantitative Risk Assessment Associated with Consumption of Shellfish 389
16.4.4. Estimate of the Global Production and Consumption of Mollusks 389
16.4.5. Calculating GBD in Terms of DALYs 390
16.5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 391
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 392
REFERENCES 393
Bacterial Pathogens of Marine Fish 395
17.1. INTRODUCTION 395
17.2. GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIAL PATHOGENS 399
17.2.1. Renibacterium salmoninarum 399
17.2.2. Lactococcus and Streptococcus 399
17.3. GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA 399
17.3.1. Aeromonas salmonicida 399
17.3.2. Pseudomonas anguilliseptica 403
17.3.3. Vibrionaceae representatives 404
17.3.4. Piscirickettsia salmonis 407
17.4. ROLE OF POLLUTION IN FISH DISEASES 408
17.5. IMPACT OF FISH PATHOGENS ON HUMAN HEALTH 408
17.5.1. Mycobacterium marinum 409
17.5.2. Vibrio vulnificus 409
17.6. CONCLUSIONS 409
REFERENCES 409
Microbial Diseases of Corals 418
18.1. INTRODUCTION 418
18.1.1. The Importance of Corals 418
18.1.2. Worldwide Destruction of Corals 418
18.1.3. GlobalWarming and Other Factors that Affect Coral Health 419
18.2. CORAL BLEACHING 420
18.2.1. Bleaching of O. patagonica by V. shiloi 420
18.2.2. Bleaching of P. damicornis by Vibrio coralliilyticus 424
18.3. BLACK BAND DISEASE 425
18.3.1. Microbial Pathogen(s) 425
18.3.2. Mechanism of Coral Cell Death 426
18.3.3. Studies on Uncultured Bacteria 426
18.4. ASPERGILLOSIS 427
18.4.1. Identity of the Pathogen 427
18.4.2. Mode of Transmission 427
18.5. WHITE DISEASES 427
18.5.1. White Pox Disease 428
18.5.2. White Band Diseases 428
18.5.3. White Plague Diseases 428
18.6. YELLOW BAND DISEASE 429
18.7. CONCLUDING REMARKS 430
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 430
REFERENCES 430
Aquaculture and Animal Pathogens in the Marine Environment with Emphasis on Marine Shrimp Viruses 434
19.1. INTRODUCTION 434
19.2. PATHOGEN POPULATION BIOLOGY 437
19.2.1. Model Epizootics 437
19.2.2. R0 and Threshold 439
19.3. SHRIMP AQUACULTURE PATHOGENS 440
19.3.1. Taura Syndrome Virus 441
19.3.2. White Spot Syndrome Virus 443
19.4. CONCLUSION 450
19.5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 450
REFERENCES 450
Index 455

Produkt-Details

• Erscheint lt. Verlag: 12.10.2006
• Zusatzinfo: XIV, 464 p. 49 illus.
• Verlagsort: New York
• Sprache: englisch
• Themenwelt: Studium ► 1. Studienabschnitt (Vorklinik) ► Biochemie / Molekularbiologie
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Mikrobiologie / Immunologie
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Ökologie / Naturschutz
• Themenwelt: Technik
• Schlagworte: Aquaculture • Bacteria • Ecology • Environment • Virus
• ISBN-10: 0-387-23709-7 / 0387237097
• ISBN-13: 978-0-387-23709-1 / 9780387237091