Petroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook

Volume 1

A Coker (Autor)

Buch | Hardcover

654 Seiten

2018
John Wiley & Sons Inc (Verlag)
978-1-118-23369-6 (ISBN)

Infos

There is a renaissance that is occurring in chemical and process engineering, and it is crucial for today's scientists, engineers, technicians, and operators to stay current. With so many changes over the last few decades in equipment and processes, petroleum refining is almost a living document, constantly needing updating. With no new refineries being built, companies are spending their capital re-tooling and adding on to existing plants. Refineries are like small cities, today, as they grow bigger and bigger and more and more complex. A huge percentage of a refinery can be changed, literally, from year to year, to account for the type of crude being refined or to integrate new equipment or processes.

This book is the most up-to-date and comprehensive coverage of the most significant and recent changes to petroleum refining, presenting the state-of-the-art to the engineer, scientist, or student. Useful as a textbook, this is also an excellent, handy go-to reference for the veteran engineer, a volume no chemical or process engineering library should be without. Written by one of the world's foremost authorities, this book sets the standard for the industry and is an integral part of the petroleum refining renaissance. It is truly a must-have for any practicing engineer or student in this area.

Autor

Kayode Coker PhD, is Engineering Consultant for AKC Technology, an Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Wolverhampton, U.K., a former Engineering Coordinator at Saudi Aramco Shell Refinery Company and Chairman of the department of Chemical Engineering Technology at Jubail Industrial College, Saudi Arabia. He has been a chartered chemical engineer for more than 30 years. He is a Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, U.K. and a senior member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. He holds a B.Sc. honors degree in Chemical Engineering, a Master of Science degree in Process Analysis and Development and Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering, all from Aston University, Birmingham, U.K. and a Teacher's Certificate in Education at the University of London, U.K. He has directed and conducted short courses extensively throughout the world and has been a lecturer at the university level. His articles have been published in several international journals. He is an author of five books in chemical engineering, a contributor to the Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design. Vol 61. He was named as one of the International Biographical Centre's Leading Engineers of the World for 2008. Also, he is a member of International Who's Who of ProfessionalsTM and Madison Who's Who in the U.S.

Inhalt

Preface ... xix
Acknowledgments ... xxi
About the Author ... xxiii

1 Introduction ... 1
References ... 6

2 Composition of Crude Oils and Petroleum Products ... 7
2.1 Hydrocarbons ... 8
2.1.1 Alkynes Series ... 12
2.2 Aromatic Hydrocarbons ... 14
2.3 Heteroatomic Organic Compounds ... 15
2.3.1 Non-Hydrocarbons ... 15
2.3.2 Sulfur Compounds ... 18
2.4 Thiols ... 18
2.5 Oxygen Compounds ... 20
2.6 Nitrogen Compounds ... 22
2.7 Resins and Asphaltenes ... 23
2.8 Salts ... 24
2.9 Carbon Dioxide ... 24
2.10 Metallic Compounds ... 24
2.11 Products Composition ... 25
2.11.1 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) (C3 and C4) ... 26
2.11.2 Gasoline (C5 to C11) ... 26
2.11.3 Condensate (C4, C5 and C6 >) ... 27
2.11.4 Gas Fuel Oils (C12 to C19) ... 27
2.11.5 Kerosene ... 27
2.11.6 Diesel Fuel ... 28
2.11.7 Fuel Oils # 4, 5, and 6 ... 28
2.11.8 Residual Fuel Oil ... 28
2.11.9 Natural Gas ... 29
References ... 30

3 Characterization of Petroleum and Petroleum Fractions ... 31
3.1 Introduction ... 31
3.1.1 Crude Oil Properties ... 32
3.1.2 Gravity, API ... 32
3.1.3 Boiling Point Range ... 33
3.1.4 Characterization Factor ... 33
3.1.5 The Universal Oil Product Characterization factor, KUOP ... 34
3.1.6 Carbon Residue, wt% ... 34
3.1.7 Nitrogen Content, wt% ... 36
3.1.8 Sulfur Content, wt% ... 36
3.1.9 Total Acid Number (TAN) ... 36
3.1.10 Salt Content, pounds/1000 barrels ... 36
3.1.11 Metals, parts/million (ppm) by weight ... 36
3.1.12 Pour Point (oF or °C) ... 36
3.2 Crude Oil Assay Data ... 37
3.2.1 Whole crude oil average properties ... 37
3.2.2 Fractional properties ... 37
3.3 Crude Cutting Analysis ... 37
3.4 Crude Oil Blending ... 37
3.5 Laboratory Testing of Crude Oils ... 46
3.5.1 True Boiling Point (TBP) Curve ... 46
3.5.2 ASTM D86 Distillation ... 46
3.5.3 Boiling Points ... 47
3.5.4 Conversion Between ASTM and TBP Distillation ... 49
3.5.5 Petroleum Pseudo-Components ... 54
3.5.6 Pseudo-Component Normal Boiling Points ... 55
3.5.7 ASTM D1160 Distillation ... 55
3.5.8 Determination of ASTM IBP, 10%, 20–90% Points of Blend ... 55
3.5.9 ASTM 10–90% Points ... 56
3.5.10 Initial Boiling Point Determination ... 56
3.5.11 ASTM End Point of Blend ... 56
3.5.12 Flash Point ... 56
3.5.13 Flash Point, °F, as a Function of Average Boiling Point ... 57
3.5.14 Smoke Point of Kerosenes ... 57
3.5.15 Luminometer Number ... 57
3.5.16 Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) ... 57
3.5.17 Vapor Pressure of Narrow Hydrocarbon Cuts ... 58
3.6 Octanes ... 58
3.7 Cetanes ... 58
3.7.1 Cetane Index ... 59
3.8 Diesel Index ... 59
3.9 Determination of the Lower Heating Value of Petroleum Fractions ... 59
3.10 Aniline Point Blending ... 60
3.11 Correlation Index (CI) ... 60
3.12 Chromatographically Simulated Distillations ... 61
References 62

4 Thermodynamic Properties of Petroleum and Petroleum Fractions ... 63
4.1 K-Factor Hydrocarbon Equilibrium Charts ... 64
4.2 Non-Ideal Systems ... 72
4.3 Vapor Pressure ... 74
4.3.1 Vapor Pressure Determination using the Clausius-Clapeyron and the Antoine Equations ... 75
4.4 Viscosity ... 80
4.4.1 Conversion to Saybolt Universal Viscosity ... 80
4.4.2 Conversion to Saybolt Furol Viscosity ... 82
4.4.3 Equivalents of Kinematic (cSt), Saybolt Universal (SUS), and Dynamic viscosity ... 82
4.4.4 Viscosity of Liquid Hydrocarbons ... 83
4.4.5 Gas Viscosity ... 84
4.5 Refractive Index ... 87
4.6 Liquid Density ... 89
4.6.1 Gas Density ... 89
4.7 Molecular Weight ... 90
4.8 Molecular Type Composition ... 90
4.9 Critical Temperature, Tc ... 96
4.10 Critical Pressure, Pc ... 97
4.11 Pseudo-Critical Constants and Acentric Factors ... 98
4.12 Enthalpy of Petroleum Fractions ... 99
4.13 Compressibility Z Factor of Natural Gases ... 100
4.14 Simulation Thermodynamic Software Programs ... 105
References ... 110

5 Process Descriptions of Refinery Processes ... 111
5.1 Introduction ... 111
5.2 Refinery and Distillation Processes ... 115
5.3 Process Description of the Crude Distillation Unit ... 120
5.3.1 Crude Oil Desalting ... 121
5.3.2 Types of Salts in Crude Oil ... 122
5.3.3 Desalting Process ... 122
5.3.4 Pumparound Heat Removal ... 127
5.3.5 Tower Pressure Drop and Flooding ... 130
5.3.6 Carbon Steel Trays ... 130
5.3.7 Rectifying Section of the Main Column ... 130
5.3.8 Side Stripping Columns ... 130
5.3.9 Crude Column Overhead ... 130
5.3.10 General Properties of Petroleum Fractions ... 130
5.4 Process Variables in the Design of Crude Distillation Column ... 132
5.4.1 Process Design of a Crude Distillation Column ... 133
5.5 Process Simulation ... 134
5.5.1 Overall Check of Simulation ... 135
5.5.2 Other Aspects of Design ... 136
5.5.3 Relationship between Actual Trays and Theoretical Trays ... 137
5.6 Process Description of Light Arabian Crude Using UniSim® Simulation Software [12] ... 138
5.6.1 Column Conventions ... 141
5.6.2 Performance Specifications Definition ... 142
5.6.3 Cut Points ... 142
5.6.4 Degree of Separation ... 142
5.6.5 Overflash ... 142
5.6.6 Column Pressure ... 143
5.6.7 Overhead Temperature ... 143
5.6.8 Bottom Stripping ... 144
5.6.9 Side Stream Stripper ... 144
5.6.10 Reflux ... 144
5.7 Troubleshooting Actual Columns ... 144
5.8 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations ... 145
References ... 148

6 Thermal Cracking Processes ... 149
6.1 Process Description ... 152
6.2 Steam Jet Ejector ... 152
6.3 Pressure Survey in a Vacuum Column ... 154
6.4 Simulation of Vacuum Distillation Unit ... 156
6.5 Coking ... 157
6.5.1 Delayed Coking ... 157
6.5.2 Delayed Coker Yield Prediction ... 161
6.5.3 Coke Formation ... 162
6.5.4 Thermodynamics of Coking of Light Hydrocarbons ... 162
6.5.5 Gas Composition ... 163
6.6 Fluid Coking ... 164
6.6.1 Flexi-Coking ... 165
6.6.2 Contact Coking ... 167
6.6.3 Coke Drums ... 168
6.6.4 Heavy Coker Gas Oil (HCGO) Production ... 170
6.6.5 Light Coker Gas Oil (LCGO) Production ... 170
6.7 Fractionator Overhead System ... 170
6.8 Coke Drum Operations ... 172
6.9 Hydraulic Jet Decoking ... 173
6.10 Uses of Petroleum Coke ... 174
6.11 Use of Gasification ... 174
6.12 Sponge Coke ... 175
6.13 Safety and Environmental Considerations ... 175
6.14 Simulation/Calculations ... 176
6.15 Visbreaking ... 177
6.15.1 Visbreaking Reactions ... 180
6.15.2 Visbreaking Severity ... 180
6.15.3 Operation and Control ... 180
6.15.4 Typical Visbreaker Unit ... 181
6.15.5 Typical Visbreaker Unit with Vacuum Flasher ... 182
6.15.6 Typical Combination Visbreaker and Thermal Cracker ... 183
6.15.7 Product Yield ... 183
6.16 Process Simulation ... 184
6.17 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations ... 185
References 186

7 Hydroprocessing ... 187
7.1 Catalytic Conversion Processes ... 187
7.1.1 Hydrocracking Chemistry ... 188
7.1.2 Hydrocracking Reactions ... 190
7.1.3 Typical Hydrocracking Reactions ... 191
7.2 Feed Specifications ... 194
7.2.1 Space Velocity ... 195
7.2.2 Reactor Temperature ... 195
7.2.3 Reactor Pressure ... 195
7.2.4 Hydrogen Recycle Rate ... 195
7.2.5 Oil Recycle Ratio ... 195
7.2.6 Heavy Polynuclear Aromatics ... 196
7.3 Feed Boiling Range ... 196
7.4 Catalyst ... 196
7.4.1 Catalyst Performance ... 197
7.4.2 Loss of Catalyst Performance ... 197
7.4.3 Poisoning by Impurities in Feeds or Catalysts ... 198
7.4.4 The Apparent Catalyst Activity ... 200
7.5 Poor Gas Distribution ... 200
7.6 Poor Mixing of Reactants ... 200
7.7 The Mechanism of Hydrocracking ... 200
7.8 Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Hydrocracking ... 201
7.9 Process Design, Rating and Performance ... 204
7.9.1 Operating Temperature and Pressure ... 205
7.9.2 Optimum Catalyst Size and Shape ... 205
7.9.3 Pressure Drop (ΔP) in Tubular/Fixed-Bed Reactors ... 205
7.9.4 Catalyst Particle Size ... 207
7.9.5 Vessel Dimensions ... 208
7.10 Increased ΔP ... 210
7.11 Factors Affecting Reaction Rate ... 214
7.12 Measurement of Performance ... 215
7.13 Catalyst-Bed Temperature Profiles ... 216
7.14 Factors Affecting Hydrocracking Process Operation ... 217
7.15 Hydrocracking Correlations ... 217
7.15.1 Maximum Aviation Turbine Kerosene (ATK) Correlations ... 219
7.15.2 Process Description ... 220
7.15.3 Fresh Feed and Recycle Liquid System ... 224
7.15.4 Liquid and Vapor Separators ... 225
7.15.5 Recycle Gas Compression and Distribution ... 226
7.15.6 Hydrogen Distribution ... 226
7.15.7 Control of the Hydrogen System ... 226
7.15.8 Reactor Design ... 227
7.16 Hydrocracker Fractionating Unit ... 228
7.16.1 Mild Vacuum Column ... 230
7.16.2 Steam Generation ... 230
7.17 Operating Variables ... 231
7.18 Hydrotreating Process ... 234
7.18.1 Process Description ... 237
7.18.2 Process Variables ... 237
7.18.3 Hydrotreating Catalysts ... 240
7.19 Thermodynamics of Hydrotreating ... 240
7.20 Reaction Kinetics ... 243
7.21 Naphtha Hydrotreating ... 245
7.21.1 Hydrotreating Correlations ... 245
7.21.2 Middle Distillates Hydrotreating ... 248
7.21.3 Middle Distillate Hydrotreating Correlations ... 248
7.22 Atmospheric Residue Desulfurization ... 250
7.22.1 High-Pressure Separator ... 252
7.22.2 Low-Pressure Separator ... 252
7.22.3 Hydrogen Sulfide Removal ... 252
7.22.4 Recycled Gas Compressor ... 252
7.22.5 Process Water ... 252
7.22.6 Fractionation Column ... 253
7.22.7 Operating Conditions of Hydrotreating Processes ... 253
7.23 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations ... 258
References ... 258

8 Catalytic Cracking 259
8.1 Introduction ... 259
8.2 Fluidized Bed Catalytic Cracking ... 262
8.2.1 Process Description ... 262
8.3 Modes of Fluidization ... 269
8.4 Cracking Reactions ... 270
8.4.1 Secondary Reactions ... 272
8.5 Thermodynamics of FCC ... 273
8.5.1 Transport Phenomena, Reaction Patterns and Kinetic models ... 273
8.5.2 Three- and Four-Lump kinetic models ... 276
8.6 Process Design Variables ... 278
8.6.1 Process Variables ... 279
8.6.2 Process Operational Variables ... 280
8.7 Material and Energy Balances ... 281
8.7.1 Material Balance ... 281
8.7.2 Energy Balance ... 282
8.8 Heat Recovery ... 283
8.9 FCC Yield Correlations ... 284
8.10 Estimating Potential Yields of FCC Feed ... 286
8.11 Pollution Control ... 290
8.12 New Technology ... 292
8.12.1 Deep Catalytic Cracking ... 293
8.12.2 Shell’s Fluid Catalytic Cracking ... 294
8.12.3 Fluid Catalytic Cracking High Severity ... 295
8.12.4 Fluid Catalytic Cracking for Maximum Olefins ... 295
8.13 Refining/Petrochemical Integration ... 296
8.14 Metallurgy ... 296
8.15 Troubleshooting for Fluidized Catalyst Cracking Units ... 297
8.16 Health, Safety and Environment Considerations ... 298
8.17 Licensors’ Correlations ... 299
8.18 Simulation and Modeling Strategy ... 300
References ... 304

9 Catalytic Reforming and Isomerization ... 305
9.1 Introduction ... 305
9.2 Catalytic Reforming ... 306
9.3 Feed Characterization ... 306
9.4 Catalytic Reforming Processes ... 308
9.4.1 Role of Reformer in the Refinery ... 309
9.4.2 UOP Continuous Catalytic Regeneration (CCR) Reforming Process ... 310
9.5 Operations of the Reformer Process ... 312
9.5.1 Effect of Major Variables in Catalytic Reforming ... 314
9.6 Catalytic Reformer Reactors ... 316
9.7 Material Balance in Reforming ... 317
9.8 Reactions ... 320
9.8.1 Naphthene Dehydrogenation to Cyclohexanes ... 320
9.8.2 Dehydrocyclization of Paraffins to Aromatics ... 321
9.8.3 Dehydroisomerization of Alkylcyclopentanes to Aromatics ... 321
9.8.4 Isomerization of n-Paraffins ... 321
9.9 Hydrocracking Reactions ... 322
9.10 Reforming Catalyst ... 322
9.11 Coke Deposition ... 324
9.12 Thermodynamics ... 326
9.13 Kinetic Models ... 326
9.14 The Reactor Model ... 326
9.15 Modeling of Naphtha Catalytic Reforming Process ... 329
9.16 Isomerization ... 329
9.16.1 Thermodynamics ... 330
9.16.2 Isomerization Reactions ... 331
9.17 Sulfolane Extraction Process ... 331
9.17.1 Sulfolane Extraction Unit (SEU) Corrosion Problems ... 332
9.17.2 Other Solvents for the Extraction Unit ... 333
9.18 Aromatic Complex ... 333
9.18.1 Aromatic Separation ... 335
9.19 Hydrodealkylation Process ... 336
9.19.1 Separation of the Reactor Effluents ... 337
References 337

10 Alkylation and Polymerization Processes 339
10.1 Introduction ... 339
10.2 Chemistry of Alkylation ... 340
10.3 Catalysts ... 342
10.4 Process Variables ... 343
10.5 Alkylation Feedstocks ... 345
10.6 Alkylation Products ... 346
10.7 Sulfuric Acid Alkylation Process ... 346
10.8 HF Alkylation ... 347
10.9 Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Alkylation ... 351
10.10 Polymerization ... 354
10.11 HF and H2SO4 Mitigating Releases ... 354
10.12 Corrosion Problems ... 356
10.13 A New Technology of Alkylation Process Using Ionic Liquid ... 356
10.14 Chevron – Honeywell UOP Ionic liquid Alkylation ... 357
10.15 Chemical Release and Flash Fire: A Case Study of the Alkylation Unit at the Delaware City Refining Company (DCRC) Involving Equipment Maintenance Incident ... 358
References ... 362

11 Hydrogen Production and Purification 365
11.1 Hydrogen Requirements in a Refinery ... 365
11.2 Process Chemistry ... 366
11.3 High-Temperature Shift Conversion ... 368
11.4 Low-Temperature Shift Conversion ... 368
11.5 Gas Purification ... 368
11.6 Purification of Hydrogen Product ... 369
11.7 Hydrogen Distribution System ... 370
11.8 Off-Gas Hydrogen Recovery ... 371
11.9 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) Unit ... 371
11.10 Refinery Hydrogen Management ... 375
11.11 Hydrogen Pinch Studies ... 377
References ... 379

12 Gas Processing and Acid Gas Removal 381
12.1 Introduction ... 381
12.2 Diesel Hydrodesulfurization (DHDS) ... 383
12.3 Hydrotreating Reactions ... 383
12.4 Gas Processing ... 388
12.4.1 Natural Gas ... 388
12.4.2 Gas Processing Methods ... 389
12.4.3 Reaction Gas Processes ... 390
12.4.4 Sweetening Process ... 390
12.4.5 MEROX Process ... 390
12.5 Sulfur Management ... 391
12.5.1 Sulfur Recovery Processes ... 393
12.5.2 Tail Gas Clean Up ... 401
12.6 Physical Solvent Gas Processes ... 401
12.6.1 Physical and Chemical Processes ... 402
12.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Sulfinol® Process ... 402
12.7 Carbonate Process ... 402
12.8 Solution Batch Process ... 403
12.9 Process Description of Gas Processing using UniSim® Simulation ... 405
12.10 Gas Dryer (Dehydration) Design ... 410
12.10.1 The Equations ... 412
12.10.2 Pressure Drop (ΔP) ... 413
12.10.3 Fouled Bed ... 413
12.11 Kremser-Brown-Sherwood Method-No Heat of Absorption ... 415
12.11.1 Absorption: Determine Component Absorption in Fixed Tray Tower (Adapted in part from Ref. 12) ... 415
12.11.2 Absorption: Determine the Number of Trays for Specified Product Absorption ... 417
12.11.3 Stripping: Determine the Number of Theoretical Trays and Stripping Steam or Gas Rate for a Component Recovery ... 418
12.11.4 Stripping: Determine Stripping-Medium Rate for a Fixed Recovery ... 420
12.12 Absorption: Edmister Method ... 421
12.12.1 Absorption and Stripping Efficiency ... 427
12.13 Gas Treating Troubleshooting ... 432
12.13.1 High Exit Gas Dew Point ... 432
12.13.2 High Glycol Losses ... 432
12.13.3 Glycol Contamination ... 432
12.13.4 Poor Glycol Reconcentration ... 433
12.13.5 Low Glycol Circulation – Glycol Pump ... 433
12.13.6 High Pressure Drop Across Contactor ... 433
12.13.7 High Stripping Still Temperature ... 433
12.13.8 High Reboiler Pressure ... 433
12.13.9 Firetube Fouling/Hot Spots/Burn Out ... 433
12.13.10 High Gas Dew Points ... 433
12.13.11 Cause – Inadequate Glycol Circulation Rate ... 433
12.13.12 Low Reboiler Temperature ... 433
12.13.13 Flash Separator Failure ... 434
12.13.14 Cause – Insufficient Reconcentration of Glycol ... 434
12.13.15 Cause – Operating Conditions Different from Design ... 434
12.13.16 Cause – Low Gas Flow Rates ... 434
12.13.17 High Glycol Loss ... 434
12.14 Cause – Loss of Glycol Out of Still Column ... 434
12.15 The ADIP Process ... 435
12.16 Sour Water Stripping Process ... 435

References ... 438
Glossary of Petroleum and Technical Terminology ... 441
Appendix A Equilibrium K values ... 533
Appendix B Analytical Techniques ... 547
Appendix C Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Major Hydrocarbons ... 557
Appendix D A List of Engineering Process Flow Diagrams and Process Data Sheets ... 573
Index ... 623

Produkt-Details

• Verlagsort: New York
• Sprache: englisch
• Maße: 215 x 288 mm
• Gewicht: 1878 g
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Chemie
• Themenwelt: Technik ► Elektrotechnik / Energietechnik
• Themenwelt: Technik ► Umwelttechnik / Biotechnologie
• ISBN-10: 1-118-23369-7 / 1118233697
• ISBN-13: 978-1-118-23369-6 / 9781118233696
• Zustand: Neuware