Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences (eBook)

Kenneth Ferraro, Linda George (Herausgeber)

eBook Download: PDF | EPUB

2015 | 8. Auflage
552 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-12-417285-2 (ISBN)

Infos

Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences, Eighth Edition, presents the extraordinary growth of research on aging individuals, populations, and the dynamic culmination of the life course, providing a comprehensive synthesis and review of the latest research findings in the social sciences of aging. As the complexities of population dynamics, cohort succession, and policy changes modify the world and its inhabitants in ways that must be vigilantly monitored so that aging research remains relevant and accurate, this completely revised edition not only includes the foundational, classic themes of aging research, but also a rich array of emerging topics and perspectives that advance the field in exciting ways. New topics include families, immigration, social factors, and cognition, caregiving, neighborhoods, and built environments, natural disasters, religion and health, and sexual behavior, amongst others. - Covers the key areas in sociological gerontology research in one volume, with an 80% update of the material - Headed up by returning editor Linda K. George, and new editor Kenneth Ferraro, highly respected voices and researchers within the sociology of aging discipline - Assists basic researchers in keeping abreast of research and clinical findings - Includes theory and methods, aging and social structure, social factors and social institutions, and aging and society - Serves as a useful resource-an inspiration to those searching for ways to contribute to the aging enterprise, and a tribute to the rich bodies of scholarship that comprise aging research in the social sciences

Inhalt

Front Cover 1
Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences 4
Copyright Page 5
Dedications 6
Contents 8
Foreword 12
Preface 14
About the Editors 16
List of Contributors 18
I. Theory and Methods 20
1 Aging and the Social Sciences: Progress and Prospects 22
Theoretical and Conceptual Developments 23
Cumulative Advantage/Disadvantage Theory 24
Cumulative Inequality Theory 25
Methods and Data 25
Data Developments 25
Statistical Sophistication 27
Emerging Themes in Aging Research 28
Increased Attention to Cohort Analysis 28
The Effects of Social and Economic Disruptions on Aging 29
The Great Recession 30
Hurricane Katrina and Other Disasters 30
Gradual, Incremental Cultural Change 31
Income Inequality and Health 31
What Aging Research Contributes to the Social Sciences: The Big Picture 35
References 39
2 Trajectory Models for Aging Research 42
Growth Modeling in a Nutshell 44
Example 2.1 45
Latent Class Modeling in a Nutshell 50
Example 2.2 50
Example 2.3 53
Example 2.4 55
Latent Class Growth Analysis 57
Example 2.5 57
Growth Mixture Modeling 58
Example 2.6 59
Important Issues in the Implementation of Trajectory Methods 62
Data Structure and Method 62
Measurement of Time 63
Importance of Assumptions 65
Extraction of Classes and Inclusion of Covariates 66
Conclusion 68
References 69
II. Social Structures and Processes 72
3 Biodemography: Adding Biological Insight into Social, Economic, and Psychological Models of Population and Individual Hea ... 74
Introduction 75
Expansion of the Demographic Approach: The Process of Health Change 75
The Expanded Biodemographic Model of Health 76
Measuring Biomarkers in Population Studies 78
Use of Biomarkers in Assessing Population Health and Health Care Use and Its Effectiveness 79
Summary Indices of Biological Risk 82
Genetic Markers as a New Frontier 87
Summary 88
Appendix: Information on Biomarkers often Used in Social Science Research 88
References 91
4 Late-Life Disability Trends and Trajectories 96
Introduction 96
The Conceptualization of Disability 98
Measuring Disability 100
Evidence on Trends in Disability Prevalence 103
Overall Trends 103
Between-Group Differences, Compositional Change, and “True” Change 105
Potential Explanations for “True” Change 107
Individual-Level Disability Trajectories 108
Time to Death as an Additional “Time” Variable 112
Accounting for Sample Losses due to Death 113
Conclusion 113
References 114
5 Early Life Origins of Adult Health and Aging 120
Introduction 120
Historical Overview 122
Early Origins of Adult Disease: From FOAD Through DOHaD to a Life Course Perspective 123
The Intrauterine Environment 123
The Postnatal Environment 124
Physical Growth and Development 125
Early Adverse Environments and the Stress Response 125
A Genetic and Evolutionary Perspective 126
Early Life Origins of Functional Aging in a Life Course Perspective 128
An Integrated Life Course Model of Aging 128
Structural Reserve and Compensatory Mechanisms 131
Endocrine System 131
Life Course Physical and Psychological Influences on the HPA Axis 132
Vascular Function 133
Lifetime Influences on Vascular Function 133
Physical and Cognitive Capability 134
Lifetime Influences on Physical and Cognitive Capability 134
Conclusions and Future Directions 135
References 137
6 Racial and Ethnic Inequalities in Health 142
Racial and Ethnic Inequalities in Health 142
Theoretical Perspectives 144
Life-Course Perspectives on Health 146
Theories of Life-Course Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities 148
Research Across Minority Groups 149
Summary and Conclusion 152
References 156
7 Immigration, Aging, and the Life Course 162
Introduction 162
Immigration as a Life-Course Experience 163
The Principle of Life-Span Development 165
The Principle of Agency 166
The Principle of Time and Place 166
The Principle of Timing 167
The Principle of Linked Lives 168
Immigrants and Families 169
Socioeconomic Outcomes of Older Immigrants 171
The Health of Older Immigrants 173
Conclusion 174
References 176
8 Gender, Time Use, and Aging 182
Introduction 182
Measuring Time Allocation in Later Life 184
“A Day in the Life” of Older Adults 186
Age and Gendered Time Use 187
Employment and Family Role Influences on Time Use 188
Work and Family Roles, Gender, and Leisure Activities 190
The Social versus Solitary Dimension of Time 192
Caregiving, Time Use, and Well-Being 193
Measuring Caregiving Time 193
Future Directions 195
Acknowledgments 197
References 197
9 Social Networks in Later Life 200
Introduction 200
Network Concepts and Definitions 201
Basic Social Network Data Concepts 201
Elements of Network Structure and Composition 203
Composite Network Measures 204
Why and How Social Networks Matter 204
Access to Social Resources 204
Health and Well-Being 205
Aging and Social Network Change 208
Theories of Network Change in Later Life 208
Consequences of Network Change for Older Adults 209
Social Networks and Stratification 210
Race/Ethnicity 210
Socioeconomic Status 211
Gender 212
Emerging Topics in Network-Gerontology 212
Electronic Networks 212
Whole Networks 213
Network Diffusion Processes 214
Negative Network Ties 215
Conclusions 215
References 216
III. Social Factors and Social Institutions 222
10 Stability, Change, and Complexity in Later-Life Families 224
Introduction 225
Theoretical Roots and Conceptual Advances 226
Intergenerational Solidarity 226
The Life-Course Perspective in Later-Life Family Relationships 227
Within-Family Complexity 228
Substantive Advances 228
Supportive Exchanges Between Generations 228
Relationship Quality Between Older Parents and Adult Children 231
Social Structural Characteristics 231
Ascribed Characteristics 231
Achieved Structural Characteristics 232
Value Similarity 234
Exchange Processes 234
Sibling Relations 234
New Directions in the Study of Relationship Quality Between Siblings 235
Patterns of Support Between Siblings 235
Grandparent–Grandchild Relations 236
New Directions in the Study of Relationship Quality Between Grandparents and Grandchildren 237
Patterns of Support Between Grandparents and Grandchildren 237
Marriage in the Later Years 238
Conclusion 239
References 240
11 The Influence of Military Service on Aging 246
Introduction 246
Cohort Flow, Periods of War, and the Composition of the US Older Adult Population 247
Military Service as a “Hidden Variable” in Aging Research 249
Mechanisms Through Which Military Service Influences Aging 251
An Overview of Military Service and Aging Among Specific War Cohorts 253
WWI 253
WWII 255
Korean War and Post-Korean War 256
Vietnam War 257
All-Volunteer Force 259
Studying Military Service and Aging 261
References 265
12 Religion, Health, and Aging 270
Introduction 270
Religious Involvement over the Life Course 271
Religion, Health, and Well-Being 273
Religion and Physical Health 273
Religion and Psychological Well-Being 274
From Correlation to Explanation: Identifying the Health-Related Dimensions of Religion 275
Religious Services Attendance 275
Religious Coping Responses 276
God-Mediated Control Beliefs 277
Religion and a Sense of Meaning in Life 278
Religious Involvement and Forgiveness 279
Prayer 280
Social Relationships in the Church 281
Spiritual Struggles: Assessing the Dark Side of Religion 283
Race/Ethnicity, Religion, and Health 284
Conclusions 285
Acknowledgment 286
References 286
13 Evolving Patterns of Work and Retirement 290
Introduction 290
The Beginning and End of Earlier and Earlier Retirement 292
A Closer Look at the Retirement Process in the Modern Era 294
Changes to the Traditional Pillars of Retirement Income and How They Relate to Labor Force Participation 296
The Increasing Importance of Macroeconomic Influences 301
The Potential Benefits of Continued Work Later in Life 303
Disclaimer and Acknowledgments 306
References 306
14 Productive Engagement in Later Life 312
Introduction 312
Conceptual Issues 313
Defining the Term 313
Controversies in Defining the Term 314
Relevance of Productive Engagement in Later Life 315
Demographic Context 315
Prevalence of Productive Engagement in Later Life 316
Scholarship on the Antecedents and Outcomes of Productive Engagement 318
Conceptual Frameworks 318
Overview of the Current Evidence on Antecedents of Productive Engagement 320
Theoretical Perspectives 320
Empirical Findings 321
Overview of the Literature on Outcomes of Productive Engagement 323
Theoretical Perspectives 323
Empirical Findings 324
Challenges and Future Directions 325
References 328
15 Aging, Neighborhoods, and the Built Environment 334
Introduction 334
Theoretical Models of Neighborhood 335
The Concept of Neighborhood 335
Contextual and Compositional Neighborhood Effects 336
The Interaction of Person and Environment 337
Neighborhood Stress Process Model 338
Neighborhood Structure and the Health of Older Persons 340
Neighborhood Socioeconomic Disadvantage 340
Racial and Ethnic Segregation 342
Stressors and Resources 343
The Built Environment and the Health of Older Persons 345
Physical Activity and Health 345
The Disability Process 346
Aging in Place 348
Recovery of Mobility 349
Discussion and Directions for Future Research 349
Age and Time 349
Toward Evidence-Based Interventions 350
References 351
16 Abusive Relationships in Late Life 356
Introduction 356
Prevalence of Elder Abuse 357
Global Perspectives 358
A Socioecological Framework for Understanding Elder Abuse 359
Ecological Theory 359
A Life Course Perspective 360
Models of Social Organization 360
Feminist Theories 361
Vulnerabilities and Risk for Elder Abuse 361
Age, Gender, Race, and Ethnicity 362
Cultural Beliefs and Perceptions 363
Health and Cognitive Abilities 363
Social Interactions and Isolation 364
Perpetrators of Elder Abuse 364
Spouses/Partners 364
Adult Children 365
Other Relatives 366
Trusted Others 366
Responses to Elder Abuse 367
Community Perceptions 367
Interventions 368
Policy Initiatives 369
Future Research 369
References 370
17 The Impact of Disasters: Implications for the Well-Being of Older Adults 376
Introduction 376
Types and Definitions of Disasters 377
Influence of Residential Environment on Disaster-Related Activities and Outcomes 378
Group Evacuation versus Individual/Independent Evacuation 379
Temporary Evacuation, Transfer, or Permanent Relocation 380
Age and Vulnerability 381
Stress and Coping 382
Age and Resilience 382
Disaster-Related Physical and Mental Health Issues 384
Social Factors and Disaster Response Outcomes 385
Role of Formal and Informal Social Support and Social Networks 386
Formal Support 386
American Red Cross and Medical Reserve Corp, Community Faith-Based Organizations, Social Agencies 386
Informal Support and Social Networks 387
Senior Centers, Family, Friends, Neighbors 387
Future Directions 388
Conclusion 389
References 389
18 End-of-Life Planning and Health Care 394
Introduction 394
Death and Dying in the United States 395
Demographic and Epidemiologic Contexts 395
Cultural Context of Death and Dying 397
Medicalization of Death and Dying 397
The Movement toward Patient Autonomy 398
Advance Care Planning 399
Components and Limitations 399
ACP Benefits and Consequences 401
Trends and Differentials 402
Public Policy Innovations 404
Physician’s Order for Life-Sustaining Treatment (POLST) 404
Affordable Care Act 405
Physician-Assisted Suicide 406
Conclusion and Future Directions 407
References 409
IV. Aging and Society 414
19 Organization and Financing of Health Care 416
Introduction 416
A Brief History of Medicare and Medicaid 418
Moving into an Era of Health Reform 422
Supplementing Medicare with Medicaid and other Insurance 424
Medicaid 426
Employer-Sponsored Plans 426
Medigap Insurance 427
Medicare Advantage 428
No Coverage 429
The Affordability and Sustainability Questions about the Future of Medicare and Medicaid 429
Major Options for Reform 430
A Private Plan Approach 431
More Incremental Approaches 433
The Issues of Financing Medicare and Medicaid 434
References 435
20 Innovations in Long-Term Care 438
Introduction 438
Defining Long-Term Care 440
A Brief Historical Overview of Long-Term Care in the United States 441
Selected Innovations in Long-Term Care 443
Integrating Acute Care with Long-Term Care Services 443
Rebalancing Long-Term Care Efforts 447
Consumer-Directed Care Options 448
Culture Change 449
Pay-for-Performance 450
Informal Care 451
Transitional Care/Care Coordination 452
Health Information Technology 453
Looking Toward the Future of Long-Term Care 454
References 455
21 Politics and Policies of Aging in the United States 460
Introduction 460
The Altered Political Perceptions of Older Americans 461
Positive Standing and Policy Benefits 461
Policy Benefits and Political Standing 463
The Transformation of Seniors’ Political Environment 465
The Shifting Economic Context 466
New Political Realities 467
The Newly Conflicted World of Old-Age Policy 467
Accounting for Old-Age Policy Enactments 470
Emerging Issues 474
References 476
22 The Future of Retirement Security in Comparative Perspective 480
Introduction 481
Social Security in the United States 481
Efforts to Partially Privatize Social Security in the United States 482
Social Security “Parametric” Reform Proposals 483
Employer-Sponsored Pensions in the United States 484
The Rapid Move from DB Pensions to DC Pensions 484
The Emergence and Future of 401(k) Pensions 484
Pros and Cons of 401(k) Plans 485
The Problem of Major Market Corrections 485
The Implicit Assumption of Financial Literacy 485
International Developments and Lessons 486
The Trend toward Partial Privatization 486
Chile: A Very Influential Move from the PAYG-DB to the FDC Model 487
Argentina: An Unsuccessful Latin American Experiment in Partial Privatization 488
China: An Innovative New Rural Pension Model 489
The United Kingdom: An Industrial Country Having Noteworthy Problems with its FDC Pillar 492
Canada: A PAYG-DB-Based Scheme with Lessons for the United States 494
Conclusion 495
Acknowledgments 497
References 497
23 Health Inequalities Among Older Adults in Developed Countries: Reconciling Theories and Policy Approaches 502
Introduction 502
Theories of Health Inequality in Older Age 503
Fundamental Cause Theory 504
Life Course Theories of Health Inequality 505
Cumulative Dis/advantage (CAD) 505
Cumulative Inequality Theory 507
Welfare States and the Interplay of Social Solidarity and Equity 508
Pensions 509
Long-Term Care 511
WHO Health in All Policies 512
WHO Age-friendly Environments Programme 513
Promising Avenues for Sociological Research 515
References 517
Author Index 522
Subject Index 540

Textauszug

Chapter 1

Aging and the Social Sciences

Progress and Prospects

Linda K. George1 and Kenneth F. Ferraro2,    1Center for the Study of Aging and Human Development, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA,    2Center on Aging and the Life Course, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

The purpose of this is to highlight recent advances in social science research on aging and identify high priority topics for future research. It is organized into four sections. The first section reviews theoretical and conceptual developments in the field; the second provides an update of advances in data, methods, and statistical techniques that have become central in aging research. The third and longest section reviews three thematic topics that have emerged as cutting-edge issues in social research on aging and the life course. In the concluding section, we briefly comment upon the broader issue of how aging research contributes to major issues and assumptions in the social sciences.

Keywords

Theory; Methods; Longitudinal data; Cohort analysis; Individual and social change; Social disruptions

Outline

Theoretical and Conceptual Developments 4

Cumulative Advantage/Disadvantage Theory 5

Cumulative Inequality Theory 6

Methods and Data 6

Data Developments 6

Statistical Sophistication 8

Emerging Themes in Aging Research 9

Increased Attention to Cohort Analysis 9

The Effects of Social and Economic Disruptions on Aging 10

Gradual, Incremental Cultural Change 12

What Aging Research Contributes to the Social Sciences: The Big Picture 16

References 20

“The only constant is change.” This quote, heard frequently today, is attributed to Heraclitis of Ephesus, a Greek philosopher who lived from approximately 535 BC to 475 BC. One wonders what it was about life at about 500 years before the birth of Christ that led Heraclitis to that conclusion. Was the pace of social change so rapid that it led to this inference? Was it the rhythms of nature that triggered this observation? Or, perhaps, was it the flow of everyday life that convinced Heraclitis that he was not the same person today that he was yesterday or would be tomorrow? At any rate, it is clear that humans have long been aware that change is ubiquitous.

Scholars of aging arguably devote more of their intellectual activity to studying and understanding change than those in any other field. Aging itself is change – some of it easily observable; some of it occurring at the cellular and molecular levels and requiring years or even decades to be measurable and the fodder for scientific inquiry. Aging individuals are embedded in macro-, meso-, and micro-environments in which change also is omnipresent. And a fundamental assumption of the social sciences is that those constantly changing environments affect the ways in which people age. Thinking seriously about the complexity of change leads to the conclusion that considerable audacity and fortitude are required to study aging and lay claim to understanding or explaining its dynamics. And yet that is precisely what aging researchers do.

Audacity and fortitude also are required in any attempt to summarize the state-of-the-science with regard to social science aging research. Yet, the goal of this chapter is to provide a partial summary of the state-of-the-field. More specifically, the purpose of this chapter is to review, in broad brush, recent theoretical, methodological, and selected substantive developments in aging research in the social sciences. We used the approximate dates of 1996–2015 as the focus of this review. This is an arbitrary window of time, but we believe that it is a reasonable temporal scope for summarizing current significant issues in aging research.

The chapter is organized into four sections. The first section reviews theoretical and conceptual developments in the field; the second provides an update of advances in data, methods, and statistical techniques that have become central in aging research. The third and longest section reviews three thematic topics that have emerged as cutting-edge issues in social research on aging and the life course. In the concluding section, we briefly comment upon the broader issue of how aging research contributes to major issues and assumptions in the social sciences.

Considerable subjectivity was employed in developing this chapter, especially in identifying emerging substantive issues. It is possible to produce a veritable “laundry list” of recent and emerging themes in aging research. We selected only three, with the unifying theme being “big picture” influences on aging. Undoubtedly, other scholars would have selected other developments in the field. Other scholars may disagree with our labeling these research topics as “recent” or “new.” This is inevitable. Nonetheless, we hope that this chapter captures much of the theoretical, methodological, and substantive “action” of the past two decades in social science research on aging.

Theoretical and Conceptual Developments

Arguably, the biggest “story” in aging research for the past several decades has been developments in, advances in, and the greatly increased volume of research that incorporates the life course perspective. The life course perspective is not a theory per se; rather, it is a set of five principles that contextualize individual lives in a number of ways (Elder, Johnson, & Crosnoe, 2003). The principle of life span development states that human development and aging are lifelong processes – that patterns observable over time link distal and proximal events and experiences across the life course. The principle of agency focuses on the ways that individuals construct their own lives by the choices they make within the opportunities and constraints of their environments. The principle of time and place states that human lives develop in historical and geographic contexts that strongly affect the opportunities and constraints available. The principle of timing states that the effects of events and other experiences vary, depending on the individuals’ ages or life stages. Finally, the principle of linked lives focuses on the social networks and relationships that also structure the opportunities and constraints available to individuals. Although temporality, especially biographical and historical time, is widely viewed as the hallmark of the life course perspective, context is its major foundation.

Questions arise at times about the relationships between life course research and gerontological research, especially whether gerontological theory and research will be or have been eclipsed by the life course perspective. In order to document its strengths, life course scholars sometimes critique gerontological research that does not incorporate one or more principles of the life course perspective. Nonetheless, multiple research questions appropriately focus on late life and need not incorporate explicit life course principles (e.g., studies of variability within the older population, studies that examine the effects of interventions or policies on older adults). Virtually all studies of older adults, however, should recognize that research participants are members of cohorts measured at specific historical times – and therefore it cannot be assumed that the findings will generalize to other cohorts and historical contexts.

Because the life course perspective is not a theory, its principles need to be incorporated and tested in conjunction with established theories. This cross-fertilization of life course principles with mainstream social science theories has expanded rapidly. Several examples provide illustrations of this cross-fertilization but do not comprise a comprehensive inventory of relevant topics. Life course principles of life span development, agency, timing, and linked lives have been incorporated in stress process theory. This research has provided important knowledge about the persistent effects of early severe trauma on the mental health and well-being of older adults (e.g., Danese & McEwen, 2012; Shaw & Krause, 2002). Another profitable area of research focuses on the ways in which educational achievements and occupational choices in young adulthood affect financial security in later life (Cahill, Giandrea, & Quinn, 2006). And perhaps no topic has been more thoroughly investigated than the effects of childhood conditions (traumatic events, persistent poverty, and poor health) on morbidity and mortality in middle and late life (for a review, see Chapter 5, this volume).

Cumulative Advantage/Disadvantage Theory

If there has been a bona fide theory based on the life course perspective, specifically the principle of life span development, it is cumulative advantage/disadvantage theory (CA/DT). The major hypothesis of CA/DT was developed by Robert Merton (1968), who called it the Matthew Effect, based on a verse in the Gospel of Matthew (13:12). The Matthew Effect refers to a pattern in which those who begin with advantage accumulate more advantage over time and those who begin with disadvantage become more disadvantaged over time (Dannefer, 1987;...

Produkt-Details

• Erscheint lt. Verlag: 18.8.2015
• Sprache: englisch
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Entwicklungspsychologie
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Familien- / Systemische Therapie
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Pädagogische Psychologie
• Themenwelt: Geisteswissenschaften ► Psychologie ► Sozialpsychologie
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Humanbiologie
• Themenwelt: Naturwissenschaften ► Biologie ► Zoologie
• Themenwelt: Sozialwissenschaften ► Soziologie
• ISBN-10: 0-12-417285-7 / 0124172857
• ISBN-13: 978-0-12-417285-2 / 9780124172852