Fundamentals of Gas Shale Reservoirs
John Wiley & Sons Inc (Verlag)
978-1-118-64579-6 (ISBN)
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Provides comprehensive information about the key exploration, development and optimization concepts required for gas shale reservoirs
Includes statistics about gas shale resources and countries that have shale gas potential
Addresses the challenges that oil and gas industries may confront for gas shale reservoir exploration and development
Introduces petrophysical analysis, rock physics, geomechanics and passive seismic methods for gas shale plays
Details shale gas environmental issues and challenges, economic consideration for gas shale reservoirs
Includes case studies of major producing gas shale formations
Reza Rezaee is a Professor in the Department of Petroleum Engineering at Curtin University, Australia. He is the winner of Australian Gas innovation research 2012 award for introducing a new method to enhance natural gas production from tight gas reservoirs. He has published more than 120 peer-reviewed journal and conference papers and is the author of 3 books. His current research has been focused on integrated reservoir characterization, formation evaluation and petrophysics. He is a former “Research Fellow”, School of Geology and Geophysics, Oklahoma University.
Contributors xv
Preface xvii
1 Gas Shale: Global Significance Distribution and Challenges 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Shale Gas Overview 1
1.2.1 Shale Gas Geology 2
1.2.2 Characteristics of a Producing Shale Gas Play 3
1.3 The Significance of Shale Gas 4
1.4 Global Shale Gas Resources 5
1.4.1 Sources of Information 5
1.4.2 Resource Estimation Methodologies 5
1.5 Global Resource Data 7
1.5.1 China 7
1.5.2 The United States 7
1.5.3 Mexico 7
1.5.4 Southern South America 7
1.5.5 South Africa 8
1.5.6 Australia 8
1.5.7 Canada 8
1.5.8 North Africa 8
1.5.9 Poland 9
1.5.10 France 9
1.5.11 Russia 9
1.5.12 Scandinavia 9
1.5.13 Middle East 9
1.5.14 India 9
1.5.15 Pakistan 10
1.5.16 Northwest Africa 10
1.5.17 Eastern Europe (Outside of Poland) 10
1.5.18 Germany and Surrounding Nations 10
1.5.19 The United Kingdom 10
1.5.20 Northern South America 11
1.5.21 Turkey 11
1.6 Data Assessment 11
1.6.1 Distribution 11
1.6.2 Basin Type 11
1.6.3 Depositional Environment 12
1.6.4 TOC Content 12
1.6.5 Clay Content 13
1.7 Industry Challenges 13
1.7.1 Environmental Challenges 13
1.7.2 Commercial/Economic 14
1.8 Discussion 14
1.9 Conclusions 15
Appendix A.1 Global Shale Gas Resource Data 16
2 Organic Matter]Rich Shale Depositional Environments 21
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Processes Behind the Deposition of Organic Matter]Rich Shale 23
2.2.1 Processes Behind the Transport and Deposition of Mud 23
2.2.2 Production Destruction and Dilution: The Many Roads to Black Shale 23
2.3 Stratigraphic Distribution of Organic Matter]Rich Shales 25
2.4 Geographic Distribution of Organic Matter]Rich Shales 27
2.4.1 Background 27
2.4.2 Controls on the Geographic Distribution of Black Shales 30
2.5 Organic Matter]Rich Shale Depositional Environments 34
2.5.1 Continental Depositional Environments 34
2.5.2 Paralic Depositional Environments 36
2.5.3 Shallow Marine Depositional Environments 37
2.5.4 Deep Marine Depositional Environments 38
2.6 Conclusion 39
3 Geochemical Assessment of Unconventional Shale Gas Resource Systems 47
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Objective and Background 49
3.3 Kerogen Quantity and Quality 49
3.4 Sample Type and Quality 51
3.5 Kerogen Type and Compositional Yields 52
3.6 Thermal Maturity 54
3.7 Organoporosity Development 55
3.8 Gas Contents 57
3.9 Expulsion–Retention of Petroleum 57
3.10 Secondary (Petroleum) Cracking 58
3.11 Upper Maturity Limit for Shale Gas 58
3.12 Gas Composition and Carbon Isotopes 59
3.13 Additional Geochemical Analyses for Shale Gas Resource System Evaluation 61
3.14 Oil and Condensate with Shale Gas 63
3.15 Major Shale Gas Resource Systems 64
3.16 Conclusions 65
4 Sequence Stratigraphy of Unconventional Resource Shales 71
4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 General Sequence Stratigraphic Model for Unconventional Resource Shales 71
4.3 Ages of Sea]Level Cycles 72
4.4 Water Depth of Mud Transport and Deposition 73
4.5 Criteria to Identify Sequences and Systems Tracts 74
4.6 Paleozoic Resource Shale Examples 74
4.6.1 Barnett Shale (Devonian) 74
4.6.2 Woodford Shale (Late Devonian–Early Mississippian) 74
4.6.3 Marcellus Shale (Devonian) 78
4.6.4 New Albany Shale (Upper Devonian–Lower Mississippian) 78
4.7 Mesozoic Resource Shale Examples 80
4.7.1 Montney Formation (Early Triassic) 80
4.7.2 Haynesville/Bossier Shales (Late Jurassic) 80
4.7.3 Eagle Ford Formation (Cretaceous) 80
4.7.4 LaLuna Formation (Upper Cretaceous) 82
4.8 Cenozoic Resource Shale Example 83
4.9 Conclusions 84
4.10 Applications 84
5 Pore Geometry in Gas Shale Reservoirs 89
5.1 Introduction 89
5.1.1 Gas Shales and Their Challenges 89
5.1.2 Pore Size Classification 90
5.2 Samples Characteristics 90
5.2.1 Sample Collection 90
5.2.2 Mineral Composition 90
5.3 Experimental Methodology 91
5.3.1 Capillary Pressure Profile 91
5.3.2 Nitrogen Adsorption (N2) 92
5.3.3 Low]Field NMR 92
5.3.4 Image Acquisition and Analysis 93
5.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental PSD Methods 95
5.5 Permeability Measurement 95
5.6 Results 96
5.6.1 Pore Size Distribution from MICP Experiments 96
5.6.2 Pore Size Distribution from Nitrogen Adsorption Experiments 98
5.6.3 NMR T2 Relaxation Time 98
5.6.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy 100
5.6.5 Focused Ion Beam/Scanning Electron Microscopy 100
5.6.6 Capillary Pressure and Permeability 102
5.7 Discussion 103
5.7.1 Porosity and PSD Comparisons 103
5.7.2 Interchanging MICP with NMR Data 103
5.7.3 Pore]Body to Pore]Throat Size Ratio: Pore Geometry Complexity 107
5.7.4 Pore Throat Size and Permeability 107
5.7.5 Mineralogy 108
5.8 Conclusions 112
Appendix 5.A XRD Results 114
6 Petrophysical Evaluation of Gas Shale Reservoirs 117
6.1 Introduction 117
6.2 Key Properties for Gas Shale Evaluation 117
6.2.1 Pore System Characteristics 117
6.2.2 Organic Matter Characteristics 118
6.2.3 Permeability 118
6.2.4 Gas Storage Capacity 119
6.2.5 Shale Composition 120
6.2.6 Geomechanical Properties 120
6.3 Petrophysical Measurements of Gas Shale Reservoirs 121
6.3.1 Pore Structure Evaluation Techniques 121
6.3.2 Fluid Saturation Measurement 122
6.3.3 Permeability Measurement 123
6.3.4 Adsorbed Gas Measurement 124
6.4 Well Log Analysis of Gas Shale Reservoirs 125
6.4.1 Well Log Signatures of Gas Shale Formations 125
6.4.2 Well Log Interpretation of Gas Shale Formations 128
7 Pore Pressure Prediction for Shale Formations Using well Log Data 139
7.1 Introduction 139
7.1.1 Normal Pressure 139
7.1.2 Overpressure 139
7.2 Overpressure-Generating Mechanisms 140
7.2.1 Loading Mechanisms 141
7.2.2 Unloading Mechanisms (Fluid Expansion) 142
7.2.3 World Examples of Overpressures 143
7.2.4 Overpressure Indicators from Drilling Data 144
7.2.5 Identification of Shale Intervals 144
7.3 Overpressure Estimation Methods 146
7.3.1 Overview of the Compaction Theory 146
7.3.2 Eaton’s Method 147
7.3.3 Effective Stress Method 149
7.3.4 Bowers’s Method 150
7.4 The Role of Tectonic Activities on Pore Pressure In Shales 151
7.4.1 Geology of the Study Area 151
7.4.2 Stress Field in the Perth Basin 152
7.4.3 Pore Pressure in Tectonically Active Regions (Uplifted Areas) 154
7.4.4 Pore Pressure in Tectonically Stable Regions 154
7.4.5 Origins of Overpressure in Kockatea Shale 156
7.5 Discussion 160
7.5.1 Significance of Pore Pressure Study 163
7.5.2 Overpressure Detection and Estimation 163
7.5.3 Pore Pressure and Compressional Tectonics 163
7.5.4 Overpressure-Generating Mechanisms 164
7.5.5 Overpressure Results Verifications 164
7.6 Conclusions 165
8 Geomechanics of Gas Shales 169
8.1 Introduction 169
8.2 Mechanical Properties of Gas Shale Reservoirs 170
8.2.1 Gas Shale Reservoir Properties under Triaxial Loading 170
8.2.2 True]Triaxial Tests 171
8.2.3 Gas Shale Reservoir Properties under Ultrasonic Tests 172
8.2.4 Nanoindentation Tests on Gas Shale Plays 173
8.2.5 Scratch Tests 174
8.3 Anisotropy 175
8.3.1 Anisotropy in Gas Shale Reservoirs 175
8.4 Wellbore Instability in Gas Shale Reservoirs 176
8.4.1 Structurally Controlled Instability 177
8.4.2 Instability Due to Directional Dependency of Geomechanical Parameters 178
8.4.3 Time]Dependent Instability 184
9 Rock Physics Analysis of Shale Reservoirs 191
9.1 Introduction 191
9.2 Laboratory Measurements on Shales: Available Datasets 192
9.3 Organic Matter Effects on Elastic Properties 192
9.4 Partial Saturation Effects 195
9.5 Maturity Effects 197
9.6 Seismic Response of Orss 201
9.7 Conclusions 203
10 Passive Seismic Methods for Unconventional Resource Development 207
10.1 Introduction 207
10.2 Geomechanics and Natural Fracture Basics for Application to Hydraulic Fracturing 209
10.2.1 Basics of Earth Stress and Strain 209
10.2.2 Natural Fracture Basics and Interaction with Hydraulic Fractures 211
10.3 Seismic Phenomena 213
10.3.1 MEQs and Their Magnitudes 213
10.3.2 Earthquake Focal Mechanisms 213
10.3.3 Other Types of Seismic Activity Produced by Hydraulic Fracturing 216
10.4 Microseismic Downhole Monitoring 216
10.4.1 Downhole Monitoring Methodology 216
10.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Downhole Monitoring 220
10.5 Monitoring Passive Seismic Emissions with Surface and Shallow Buried Arrays 222
10.5.1 Recording 222
10.5.2 Seismic Emission Tomography 223
10.5.3 MEQ Methods 229
10.5.4 Imaging Cumulative Seismic Activity 230
10.5.5 Direct Imaging of Fracture Networks 232
10.5.6 Comparison of Downhole Hypocenters and Fracture Images 232
10.5.7 Summary 233
10.6 Integrating Interpreting and Using Passive Seismic Data 235
10.6.1 General Considerations 235
10.6.2 Interpreting Reservoir Stress from Focal Mechanisms 236
10.6.3 Fracture Width Height SRV and Tributary Drainage Volume 240
10.6.4 Using Passive Seismic Results for Frac Well]Test and Reservoir Simulation 240
10.7 Conclusions 241
11 Gas Transport Processes in Shale 245
11.1 Introduction 245
11.2 Detection of Nanopores in Shale Samples 247
11.3 Gas Flow in Micropores and Nanopores 248
11.4 Gas Flow in a Network of Pores in Shale 251
11.5 Gas Sorption in Shale 252
11.6 Diffusion in Bulk Kerogen 253
11.7 Measurement of Gas Molecular Diffusion into Kerogen 255
11.8 Pulse]Decay Permeability Measurement Test 256
11.8.1 Pulse]Decay Pressure Analysis 257
11.8.2 Estimation of Permeability Parameters with the Pulse]Decay Experiment 259
11.9 Crushed Sample Test 260
11.9.1 Porosity Measurement 260
11.9.2 Crushed Sample Pressure Analysis for Permeability Measurement 261
11.9.3 Crushed Sample Permeability Estimation with Early]Time Pressure Data 262
11.9.4 Crushed Sample Permeability Estimation with Late]Time Pressure Data 262
11.10 Canister Desorption Test 262
11.10.1 Permeability Estimation with Early Time Cumulative Desorbed Gas Data 263
11.10.2 Permeability Estimation with Late]Time Cumulative Desorbed Gas Data 264
12 A Review of the Critical Issues Surrounding the Simulation of Transport and Storage in Shale Reservoirs 267
12.1 Introduction 267
12.2 Microgeometry of Organic]Rich Shale Reservoirs 268
12.3 Gas Storage Mechanisms 269
12.4 Fluid Transport 270
12.5 Capillary Pressure Relaxation to Equilibrium State and Deposition of Stimulation Water 273
12.6 Characterization of Fluid Behavior and Equations of State Valid for Nanoporous Media 274
12.6.1 Viscosity Corrections 276
12.6.2 Corrections for Interfacial Tension 277
12.7 Upscaling Heterogeneous Shale]Gas Reservoirs into Large Homogenized Simulation Grid Blocks 277
12.7.1 Upscaling Fine Continuum Model of Shale to Lumped]Parameter Leaky Tank Model of Shale 278
12.7.2 Upscaling Finely Detailed Continuum Model of Shale to Coarse Continuum Model of Shale 279
12.8 Final Remarks 280
13 Performance Analysis of Unconventional Shale Reservoirs 283
13.1 Introduction 283
13.2 Shale Reservoir Production 283
13.3 Flow Rate Decline Analysis 284
13.3.1 Decline Curve Analysis in Unconventional Reservoirs 285
13.3.2 Flow Rate Transient Analysis (RTA) and its Relation to Rate Decline Analysis 286
13.3.3 Field Applications 287
13.4 Flow Rate and Pressure Transient Analysis in Unconventional Reservoirs 288
13.4.1 Bilinear Flow Regime in Multistage Hydraulic Fracturing 288
13.4.2 Linear Flow Analysis for Reservoir Permeability 289
13.4.3 Field Applications 290
13.4.4 Type-Curve Matching 290
13.5 Reservoir Modeling and Simulation 292
13.5.1 History Matching and Forecasting 292
13.5.2 Dual-Porosity Single-Phase Modeling 293
13.5.3 Dual-Porosity Multicomponent Gas Modeling 294
13.6 Specialty Short-Term Tests 295
13.6.1 Mini-DST 295
13.6.2 Mini-Frac Test 296
13.7 Enhanced Oil Recovery 297
13.8 Conclusion 298
14 Resource Estimation for Shale Gas Reservoirs 301
14.1 Introduction 301
14.1.1 Unique Properties of Shale 301
14.1.2 Petroleum Resources Management System (PRMS) 301
14.1.3 Energy Information Administration’s Classification System 301
14.1.4 Reserves Estimate Methodology for Unconventional Gas Reservoirs 302
14.1.5 Monte Carlo Probabilistic Approach 302
14.1.6 Analytical Models 303
14.1.7 Economic Analysis 303
14.1.8 Region]Level World Shale Gas Resource Assessments 304
14.1.9 Shale Gas OGIP Assessment in North America 305
14.1.10 Recent Shale Gas Production and Activity Trends 306
14.1.11 Drilling Stimulation and Completion Methods in Shale Gas Reservoirs 308
14.2 Methodology 309
14.3 Resource Evaluation of Shale Gas Plays 310
14.3.1 Reservoir Model 310
14.3.2 Well Spacing Determination 310
14.3.3 Reservoir Parameters Sensitivity Analysis 311
14.3.4 Reservoir Parameters 312
14.3.5 Model Verification 312
14.3.6 Resource Assessment 313
14.3.7 Reserve Evaluation 318
14.4 Discussion 320
15 Molecular Simulation of Gas Adsorption in Minerals and Coal: Implications for Gas Occurrence in Shale Gas Reservoirs 325
15.1 Introduction 325
15.1.1 Molecular Dynamics Simulation 325
15.1.2 Major Challenges in Shale Gas Research 326
15.1.3 MS of Gas Adsorption 326
15.1.4 Methodology and Workflow of Molecular Simulation 327
15.1.5 Simulation Algorithms and Software 327
15.2 MS of Gas Adsorption on Minerals 327
15.2.1 MD Simulation of Gas Adsorption on Quartz 328
15.2.2 Molecular Dynamic Simulation of Gas Adsorption on Wyoming]Type Montmorillonite 330
15.2.3 MD Simulation of Gas Adsorption on Zeolite 332
15.2.4 MD Simulation of Gas Adsorption on Coal 334
15.3 Conclusions 337
16 Wettability of Gas Shale Reservoirs 341
16.1 Introduction 341
16.2 Wettability 341
16.3 Imbibition in Gas Shales 342
16.4 Factors Influencing Water Imbibition in Shales 343
16.4.1 Sample Expansion 343
16.4.2 Depositional Lamination 346
16.4.3 Chemical Osmosis 346
16.4.4 Water Film and Salt Crystals 348
16.4.5 Water Adsorption (Clay Swelling) 348
16.4.6 Connectivity of Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Pore Networks 349
16.4.7 Effect of Polymer and Surfactant 351
16.5 Quantitative Interpretation of Imbibition Data 352
16.5.1 Scaling Imbibition Data 352
16.5.2 Modeling Imbibition Data 352
16.6 Estimation of Brine Imbibition at the Field Scale 354
16.7 Initial Water Saturation in Gas Shales 356
16.8 Conclusions 356
17 Gas Shale Challenges Over The Asset Life Cycle 361
17.1 Introduction 361
17.2 The Asset Life Cycle 361
17.2.1 Exploration Phase Objectives—Recommended Practices 361
17.2.2 Appraisal Phase Objectives—Recommended Practices 362
17.2.3 Development Phase Objectives—Recommended Practices 362
17.2.4 Production Phase Objectives—Recommended Practices 362
17.2.5 Rejuvenation Phase Objectives—Recommended Practices 362
17.3 Exploration Phase Discussion 362
17.3.1 Screening Study—Current Practice 362
17.3.2 Screening Study Recommended Practices 363
17.3.3 Reservoir Characterization—Current Practice 363
17.3.4 Reservoir Characterization—Recommended Practices 363
17.3.5 Determining Initial Economic Value and Reservoir Potential 365
17.4 Appraisal Phase Discussion 365
17.4.1 Drill Appraisal Wells—Current Practice 365
17.4.2 Drill Appraisal Wells—Recommended Practices 365
17.4.3 Build Reservoir Models for Simulation—Current Practice 365
17.4.4 Build Reservoir Models for Simulation—Recommended Practices 365
17.4.5 Generate a Field Development Plan—Current Practice 366
17.4.6 Generate a Field Development Plan—Recommended Practices 366
17.4.7 Validate Economics of the Play or Pilot Project 366
17.5 Development Phase Discussion 367
17.5.1 Implement the Field Development Plan 367
17.5.2 Surface Facilities 367
17.5.3 Design Wells and Optimize Drilling Costs—Current Practice 367
17.5.4 Design Wells and Optimize Drilling Costs—Recommended Practice 368
17.5.5 Refine and Optimize Hydraulic Fracturing and Wellbore Completion Design—Current Practices (Characterize the Lateral) 369
17.5.6 Current Hydraulic Fracturing Practices 369
17.5.7 Hydraulic Fracturing—Recommended Practices 370
17.5.8 Characterize the Lateral 372
17.5.9 Current Wellbore Completion Practice 373
17.5.10 Wellbore Completion—Recommended Practices 373
17.5.11 Drilling Considerations for Completion Methods 375
17.5.12 Fracturing Considerations for Completion Method 375
17.6 Production Phase Discussion 375
17.6.1 Monitor and Optimize Producing Rates—Current Practice 375
17.6.2 Monitor and Optimize Producing Rates—Recommended Practices 375
17.6.3 Manage the Water Cycle—Recommended Practices 376
17.6.4 Preventing Corrosion Scaling and Bacterial Contamination in Wells and Facilities 376
17.6.5 Protecting the Environment 376
17.7 Rejuvenation Phase Discussion 376
17.8 Conclusions—Recommended Practices 377
18 Gas Shale Environmental Issues and Challenges 381
18.1 Overview 381
18.2 Water Use 381
18.3 The Disposal and Reuse of Fracking Wastewater 382
18.4 Groundwater Contamination 384
18.5 Methane Emissions 386
18.6 Other Air Emissions 387
18.7 Social Impacts on Shale Gas Communities 388
18.8 Induced Seismicity: Wastewater Injection and Earthquakes 388
18.9 Regulatory Developments 389
18.10 Disclosure of Fracking Chemicals 389
18.11 At the Federal Government Level 390
18.12 Conclusion 391
Index 397
| Verlagsort | New York |
|---|---|
| Sprache | englisch |
| Maße | 221 x 285 mm |
| Gewicht | 1211 g |
| Themenwelt | Naturwissenschaften ► Chemie |
| Naturwissenschaften ► Geowissenschaften ► Geologie | |
| Technik ► Bergbau | |
| Technik ► Elektrotechnik / Energietechnik | |
| ISBN-10 | 1-118-64579-0 / 1118645790 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-1-118-64579-6 / 9781118645796 |
| Zustand | Neuware |
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