EMC for Product Designers (eBook)
512 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-08-046954-6 (ISBN)
As well as covering the very latest legal requirements, the fourth edition has been thoroughly updated in line with the latest best practice in EMC compliance and product design. Coverage has been considerably expanded to include the R&TTE and Automotive EMC Directives, as well the military aerospace standards of DEF STAN 59-41 and DO160E. A new chapter on systems EMC is included, while short case studies demonstrate how EMC product design is put into practice.
Tim Williams has worked for a variety of companies as an electronic design engineer over the last 25 years. He has monitored the progress of the EMC Directive and its associated standards since it was first made public. He now runs his own consultancy specialising in EMC design and test advice and training.
* Includes the compliance procedures of the latest EMC Directive: 2004/108/EC
* Short case studies demonstrating how EMC product design is put into practice.
* Packed full with many new chapters including:
- The R&TTE Directive and the Automotive EMC Directive looking at compliance aspects of radio and telecom terminal equipment and automotive electronic products
- New chapter on military aerospace standards of DEP STAN 59-41 and DO1 60E
- New chapter on systems EMC
Widely regarded as the standard text on EMC, Tim Williams' book provides all the key information needed to meet the requirements of the latest EMC Directive. Most importantly, it shows how to incorporate EMC principles into the product design process, avoiding cost and performance penalties, meeting the needs of specific standards and resulting in a better overall product. As well as covering the very latest legal requirements, the fourth edition has been thoroughly updated in line with the latest best practice in EMC compliance and product design. Coverage has been considerably expanded to include the R&TTE and Automotive EMC Directives, as well the military aerospace standards of DEF STAN 59-41 and DO160E. A new chapter on systems EMC is included, while short case studies demonstrate how EMC product design is put into practice. Tim Williams has worked for a variety of companies as an electronic design engineer over the last 25 years. He has monitored the progress of the EMC Directive and its associated standards since it was first made public. He now runs his own consultancy specialising in EMC design and test advice and training. - Includes the compliance procedures of the latest EMC Directive: 2004/108/EC- Short case studies demonstrating how EMC product design is put into practice- Packed full with many new chapters including: The R&TTE Directive and the Automotive EMC Directive looking at compliance aspects of radio and telecom terminal equipment and automotive electronic products; New chapter on military aerospace standards of DEP STAN 59-41 and DO1 60E; New chapter on systems EMC
Front cover 1
EMC for Product Designers 2
Copyright page 3
Contents 4
Preface 12
Part 1: Legislation and standards 16
Chapter 1: Introduction 16
What is EMC? 16
Portable electronic devices in aircraft 17
Interference to medical devices 18
Thermostats 21
The quacking duck 21
Compatibility between and within systems 22
Intra-system EMC 22
Inter-system EMC 22
When intra-system meets inter-system 23
The scope of EMC 23
Malfunction of control systems 23
Immunity of data and programme processing 24
Interference with radio reception 25
Disturbances of the mains supply 28
Power line telecoms 29
Other EMC issues 33
The compatibility gap 34
Electromagnetic fields and human health 35
ICNIRP basic restrictions 35
Athermal effects 37
Chapter 2: The EMC Directive 38
History 38
The New Approach Directives 38
Background to the legislation 39
The first EMC Directive 39
The second EMC Directive 41
What changes? 42
Scope, requirements and exceptions 42
The CE mark and the paperwork 46
Manufacturing quality assessment 50
Fixed installations 51
Systems 56
Implementation, enforcement and sanctions 56
Compliance of apparatus with the Directive 58
Self certification and internal production control 59
The notified body 61
Testing 63
Using standards 63
Action for compliance for a product manufacturer 67
Chapter 3: The R& TTE Directive
The implementation of the R& TTE Directive
Scope 70
Requirements 71
The process of conformity assessment 72
Procedures 73
Classes of radio transmitter 75
Notification 77
Information requirements 78
Marking of equipment and documentation 79
Chapter 4: Commercial standards 80
The standards making bodies 80
The International Electrotechnical Commission 80
CENELEC and ETSI 85
Generic standards – emissions 89
EN 61000-6-3: 2001 + A11: 2004 89
EN 61000-6-4: 2001 90
Main product standards: emissions 90
EN 55011: 1998 + A1: 1999 + A2: 2002 90
EN 55014-1: 2000 + A1: 2001 + A2: 2002 91
EN 55022: 1998 + A1: 2000 + A2: 2003 92
Generic standards – immunity 93
EN 61000-6-1: 2001 93
EN 61000-6-2: 2005 94
Basic standards – EN 61000-3-X and -4-X 94
EN 61000-3-X 95
EN 61000-4-X 96
Product standards 100
Broadcast receivers and associated equipment 101
Household appliances, electric tools and similar apparatus 102
Lighting equipment 103
Information technology equipment 104
Professional AV and entertainment lighting equipment 104
Equipment for measurement, control and laboratory use 105
Fire, intruder and social alarm systems 106
Telecommunication network equipment 106
Radio equipment 107
Marine navigation equipment 108
Medical electrical equipment 108
Future multi-media 109
Other product standards 110
Other standards not related to the EMC Directive 111
FCC Rules 111
Measurement standards 113
RF emissions limits 113
Chapter 5: Other standards and legislation 115
Automotive 115
The Automotive EMC Directive 115
ISO, CISPR and SAE standards 117
Vehicle manufacturers 119
Specialist requirements 120
Military 121
DEF STAN 59-41 122
MIL STD 461 124
Aerospace 126
DO-160/ED-14 126
Rail 128
Railway Group Standards 128
London Underground standards 130
EN 50121 130
Part 2: Testing 133
Chapter 6: RF emissions measurements 133
Emissions measuring instruments 133
Measuring receiver 133
Spectrum analyser 134
Receiver specifications 136
Transducers 141
Antennas for radiated field 142
LISNs and probes for cable measurements 146
Near field probes 154
The GTEM for emissions tests 155
Sites and facilities 156
Radiated emissions 156
Test methods 163
Test set-up 163
Test procedure 165
Tests above 1GHz 167
Military emissions tests 168
Measurement uncertainty 170
Applying measurement uncertainty 170
Sources of uncertainty 171
Chapter 7: Immunity tests 179
RF immunity 179
Equipment 179
Facilities 187
Test methods 190
Conducted RF immunity 194
Measurement uncertainty for RF immunity 198
ESD and transient immunity 199
ESD 199
Electrical fast transient (EFT) bursts 202
Surge 204
Other transient immunity tests 206
Sources of variability 208
Measurement uncertainty for transient tests 209
Military susceptibility tests 209
Continuous LF and RF susceptibility 209
Transient susceptibility 210
Chapter 8: Low frequency tests 211
Mains harmonic and flicker emission 211
Equipment 212
Test conditions 214
Equipment classification and limits 214
Flicker 216
Magnetic field and power quality immunity 220
Magnetic field 220
Voltage dips and interrupts 221
Chapter 9: Test planning 224
The need for a test plan 224
The requirements of accreditation 224
The requirements of standards 224
The requirements of the customer 226
Contents of the test plan 226
Description of the equipment under test (EUT) 226
Statement of test objectives 227
The tests to be performed 228
EUT exercising software and ancillary equipment or simulators 229
Requirements of the test facility 231
Details of the test set-up 232
How to evaluate test results 233
Immunity performance criteria 234
The generic criteria 235
Interpreting the generic criteria 235
Part 3: Design 237
Chapter 10: Interference coupling mechanisms 237
Source and victim 237
Common impedance coupling 238
Distributed near field coupling 241
Mains coupling 243
Radiated coupling 244
Coupling modes 247
Emissions 249
Radiated emissions 250
Conducted emissions 253
Immunity 256
Radiated field 256
Transients 260
Electrostatic discharge 264
LF magnetic fields 266
Supply voltage phenomena 268
Mains harmonics 269
The supplier’s problem 269
Non-linear loads 270
Chapter 11: Layout and grounding 273
Equipment layout and grounding 274
System partitioning 274
Grounding 276
Ground systems 279
PCB layout 283
Ground layout without a ground plane 283
Using a ground plane 286
Configuring I/O and circuit grounds 297
Rules for PCB layout 301
Chapter 12: Digital and analogue circuit design 303
Design for emissions control 303
The Fourier spectrum 303
Radiation from logic circuits 307
Digital circuit decoupling 315
Analogue circuits: emissions 321
The switching power supply 322
Other power switching circuits 329
Design for immunity 329
Digital circuits: interference paths 330
Logic noise immunity 336
Signal integrity and ground bounce 339
The microprocessor watchdog 341
Defensive programming 344
Transient and RF immunity – analogue circuits 348
Chapter 13: Interfaces and filtering 355
Cables and connectors 355
The mode of propagation 355
Cable return currents 356
Crosstalk 357
Cable screens at low frequencies 359
Cable screens at RF 361
Types of cable screen 362
Screened cable connections 364
Unscreened cables 367
Structured cabling: UTP versus STP 371
Filtering and suppression 372
Filter configuration 372
Components 376
Mains filters 382
I/O filtering 388
Transient suppression 390
Contact suppression 393
Chapter 14: Shielding 396
Shielding theory 396
Shielding theory for an infinite barrier 397
LF magnetic fields 399
The effect of apertures 400
The shield as ground reference 404
The image plane 405
Shielding practice 407
Shielding hardware 407
Conductive coatings 410
Windows and ventilation slots 412
Shields on the PCB 415
Standardization of enclosure SE 416
Chapter 15: Systems EMC 418
System versus product EMC 418
Compliance requirements 418
Functional requirements 419
Earthing and bonding 419
The purpose of the earth 419
Installation techniques for multi-purpose earthing 421
Earth conductors 423
Bonding techniques 423
Cabinets, cubicles and chambers 425
Transfer impedance of the earth reference 426
Layout and placement within the enclosure 427
Conductive hardware 430
Installation and maintenance of screened enclosures 431
Cabling 432
Cable classification, segregation and routing 432
Parallel Earth Conductor (PEC) techniques 435
Lightning protection 436
How lightning phenomena can affect electronic apparatus 436
Overview of design of a lightning protection system (LPS) 438
Chapter 16: EMC management 441
Managing the EMC process 441
Putting EMC in context 441
The EMC co-ordinator 442
The design process 443
The product specification 443
Design rules 443
Design reviews 444
Identifying EMC-critical aspects 444
Test management 445
When to do the tests 445
In-house or external? 447
The various types of report 448
Compliance during production and beyond 449
Degrees of quality assurance 450
Production QA testing 450
Engineering change control 452
The control plan and documentation for Directives 452
The purpose of the control plan 452
The EMC Assessment 453
Contents 454
Appendix A: Design checklist 456
Appendix B: CAD for EMC 459
Overview 459
Modelling packages 460
Circuit CAD 461
Appendix C: Case studies 463
Cockpit display 463
Liquid tank sensor 464
The problem with wall-warts 465
The dipole problem: a box in two halves 469
Appendix D: Useful tables and formulae 472
The deciBel 472
Antennas 473
Fields 474
Shielding 477
Capacitance, inductance and PCB layout 478
Filters 481
Fourier series 482
Appendix E: The EU and EEA countries 485
Glossary 486
A 486
B 486
C 486
D 486
E 486
F 487
G 487
H 487
I 487
L 487
M 487
N 487
O 487
P 487
Q 488
R 488
S 488
T 488
U 488
V 488
Z 488
Bibliography 489
Index 504
A 504
B 504
C 504
D 505
E 506
F 507
G 507
H 508
I 508
J 508
K 508
L 508
M 509
N 509
O 509
P 510
Q 510
R 510
S 511
T 512
U 513
V 513
W 513
Z 513
Preface
Broadcast television reception uses the radio spectrum. In the days before digital TV, spots, hash, snowstorms, colour and vision distortion and occasionally complete loss of picture were all symptoms of the same cause – electromagnetic interference. Interference still occurs, but its manifestation on digital pictures is different – pixellation, “blocking” in parts, and complete freezing of the picture are the modern curse, and might perhaps be regarded as more annoying than the analogue effects.
It is irritating for the viewer when the picture flickers or is wiped out during a crucial programme, just as it is irritating for a music lover who has carefully taped an important radio broadcast only to find that the quiet passages are ruined by the intrusion of the neighbour’s electric drill. It is far more critical when the emergency services are unable to communicate within a city centre because their radio signals are obscured by the electromagnetic “smog” emitted by thousands of computer terminals in the buildings around them.
The coexistence of all kinds of radio services, which use the electromagnetic spectrum to convey information, with technical processes and products from which electromagnetic energy is an undesirable by-product, creates the problem of what is known as “electromagnetic compatibility” (EMC). The solution is a compromise: radio services must allow for a certain degree of interference, but interfering emissions may not exceed a certain level, which normally involves measures to limit or suppress the interference energy. There is an economic trade-off inherent in this compromise. A lower level of interference would mean that less powerful transmitters were necessary, but the suppression costs would be higher. Alternatively, accept high power transmitters – with the attendant inefficient spectrum usage – in return for lower suppression costs. This economic balance has been tested over the past decades with the establishment of various standards for allowable levels of interference.
The problems of EMC are not limited to interference with radio services. Electronic equipment of all kinds is susceptible to malfunctions caused by external interference. This phenomenon is becoming more noticeable for two reasons: the greater pervasiveness and interaction of electronic products in all aspects of daily life, and the relatively worse immunity of modern equipment using plastic cases and microprocessors. Susceptibility to interference is now an issue for many kinds of electronic device, especially those whose continued correct operation is vital for safety or economic reasons. Automotive and aviation control systems are examples of the former category, banking and telecommunication networks are examples of the latter.
Recognizing the need for EMC protection measures and at the same time to eliminate the protectionist barriers to trade throughout the European Union, the European Commission adopted in 1989 a Directive “on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to electromagnetic compatibility”, otherwise known as the EMC Directive. It was revised, and a new edition was published at the end of 2004. It is discussed in detail in Chapter 2 of this book.
Every company that manufactures or imports electrical or electronic products should have in place measures that will enable its products to comply with the Directive. This means that an awareness of EMC must penetrate every part of the enterprise. EMC is undoubtedly affected by the design of the product, and the design and development group is where the awareness normally starts. But it also depends on the way an individual product is put together, so it affects the production department; by the way it is installed, so it affects the installation and service technicians, and the user documentation; it needs to be assured for each unit, so it affects the test department; it impacts the product’s marketing strategy and sales literature, so it affects the sales and marketing departments; and it ultimately affects the viability and liabilities of the company, so it must be understood by the senior management.
There are various means of implanting and cultivating this awareness. An EMC training course would be a good starting point. You could bring in consultants to handle every aspect of the EMC compliance process, but for many products this would be expensive and cumbersome and would not necessarily result in improved awareness and expertise within the company where it was really needed. It would also be possible to send every appropriate member of staff on a training course. This would certainly raise awareness but it may not prove so effective in the long run, since EMC techniques also need to be practised to be properly understood.
A typical compromise is to nominate one person, or a group if the resources are available, to act as the centre of EMC expertise for the company. His, her or its responsibility should be to implement the requirements of the EMC Directive and any other EMC specifications to which the company may need to work. In the long term, it should also be to make the EMC centre redundant: to imbue a knowledge of EMC principles into each operating division so that they are a natural part of the functioning of that division. This, though, takes years of continuous oversight and education. Meanwhile, the tasks include:
• reviewing each new product design throughout the development and prototyping stages for adherence to EMC principles, and advising on design changes where necessary;
• devising and implementing an EMC test and control plan for each product;
• supervising pre-compliance and compliance tests both in house and in liaison with external test houses;
• maintaining an intimate knowledge of the EMC standards and legislation that apply to the company’s products;
• liaising with marketing, sales, production, test, installation and servicing departments to ensure that their strategies are consistent with EMC requirements.
This gives an indication of the breadth of scope of the EMC engineer’s job. It is comparable to that of the quality department, and indeed can sometimes be incorporated within that department.
Preface to the fourth edition
This fourth edition comes out 14 years after the first. In that time the EMC Directive has become fully functional and the vast majority of manufacturing companies have become familiar with it. But the EMC world has not stood still: the Directive has been substantially revamped, more new product standards have been published, new test methods have become established and much has been learned to improve old tests. Although Maxwell’s laws haven’t changed, there is more understanding of how best to apply them to maximize the compatibility of individual products. The onward and upward march of clock speeds and the shrinking of product, package and interconnect dimensions has continued. And so, even if you were familiar with earlier editions, you will find quite a lot of new material in this one.
This book is intended to help the work of the company’s EMC centre. It seems to be serving its purpose: I have been pleasantly surprised by how widely it has been recommended. It can be used as a reference for the EMC engineer, as background reading for designers and technicians new to the subject, or as part of the armoury of the development group tackling a new project. It is structured into three parts. The first part (Chapters 1–5) discusses the European legislative framework now erected to encompass EMC and its near relative, the radio and telecom performance requirements. These chapters are mainly non-technical in nature. Chapter 1 introduces the subject of interference, and Chapter 2 goes on to discuss the provisions of the EMC Directive and the means of achieving compliance with it. Chapter 3 reviews the R&TTE Directive. Chapter 4 details the standards-making structure and describes the various standards that are now in existence and which are relevant for compliance with the Directive. Chapter 5 covers requirements for those sectors that are only peripherally affected by the R&TTED and EMCD: automotive, military, aerospace and rail transport.
Both design engineers and project managers need to have a feel for the tests to which their products will be submitted. As well as witnessing tests carried out by third party test houses, it is likely that many will be doing pre-compliance and full compliance tests themselves. The second part of the book looks at these areas. Chapter 6 covers the test methods for RF emissions that are laid down in the standards and which have to be followed both in-house and by external test houses. Chapter 7 does the same for the immunity tests: RF immunity, ESD and transient immunity. Chapter 8 considers the low frequency techniques, both mains input harmonics and flicker emissions, and immunity to magnetic field and voltage dips and interruptions. Finally, the tests do not happen by themselves: they must be planned, and Chapter 9 looks at this sadly neglected aspect of EMC compliance.
The third part of the book discusses techniques for achieving an acceptable EMC performance at minimum extra cost, at the design stage. It is usually possible to add screening and suppression components to an existing design to enable it to meet EMC standards. This brute force method is expensive, time-consuming and inefficient. Far better is to design to the appropriate principles from the start, so that the...
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 1.4.2011 |
|---|---|
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Kunst / Musik / Theater ► Design / Innenarchitektur / Mode |
| Naturwissenschaften ► Physik / Astronomie ► Elektrodynamik | |
| Technik ► Elektrotechnik / Energietechnik | |
| Technik ► Nachrichtentechnik | |
| ISBN-10 | 0-08-046954-X / 008046954X |
| ISBN-13 | 978-0-08-046954-6 / 9780080469546 |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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