Chemistry
John Wiley & Sons Inc (Verlag)
978-0-470-58711-9 (ISBN)
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Spencer's Chemistry: Structure and Dynamics is the most successful reform project published for the General Chemistry course. The authors have built the text on the recommendations of the ACS's Task Force on the General Chemistry Curriculum and suggestions from the adopters of previous editions. This innovative text provides a sixteen-chapter introduction to the fundamental concepts of chemistry. The material is supplemented by special topics at the end of each chapter. There are three major themes that link the content of the book: the process of science, the relationship between molecular structure and physical/chemical properties, and the relationship between the microscopic and macroscopic levels. Spencer's Chemistry can work successfully in both small and large lecture courses.
Dr. James Spencer is a professor of chemistry at Franklin and Marshall College. He has received a number of awards and commendations including the Lindback Award for Distinguished Teaching, Bradley R. Dewey Award for Outstanding Scholarship, and the Chemical Manufacturers Association National Award for Teaching. Dr. Spencer was a founding member of the Council on Undergraduate Research, a national organization dedicated to promoting research in all disciplines by undergraduates. He was appointed chair of the ACS Task Force on the General Chemistry Curriculum, served as a member and chair of the Advanced Placement Chemistry Committee and now chairs the Advanced Placement Redesign Panel for Chemistry.
Chapter 1 Elements and Compounds 1
1.1 Chemistry: A Definition, 2
1.2 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures, 3
1.3 Atomic Symbols, 4
1.4 Chemical Formulas, 5
1.5 Evidence for the Existence of Atoms, 6
1.6 The Role of Measurement in Chemistry, 7
1.7 The Structure of Atoms, 9
1.8 Atomic Number and Mass Number, 11
1.9 Isotopes, 12
1.10 The Difference Between Atoms and Ions, 14
1.11 Polyatomic Ions, 16
1.12 The Periodic Table, 16
1.13 The Macroscopic, Atomic and Symbolic Worlds of Chemistry, 18
1.14 The Mass of an Atom, 19
1.15 Chemical Reactions and the Law of Conservation of Atoms, 21
1.16 Chemical Equations as a Representation of Chemical Reactions, 21
1.17 Balancing Chemical Equations, 22
Chapter 2 The Mole: The Link between the Macroscopic and the Atomic Worlds of Chemistry 31
2.1 The Mole as the Bridge Between the Macroscopic and Atomic Scales, 32
2.2 The Mole as a Collection of Atoms, 33
2.3 Converting Grams into Moles and Number of Atoms, 35
2.4 The Mole as a Collection of Molecules, 37
2.5 Percent by Mass, 40
2.6 Determining the Formula of a Compound, 41
2.7 Two Views of Chemical Equations: Molecules Versus Moles, 45
2.8 Mole Ratios and Chemical Equations, 46
2.9 Stoichiometry, 48
2.10 The Stoichiometry of the Breathalyzer, 49
2.11 The Nuts and Bolts of Limiting Reagents, 50
2.12 Density, 53
2.13 Solute, Solvent, and Solution, 54
2.14 Concentration, 55
2.15 Molarity as a Way to Count Particles in a Solution, 56
2.16 Dilution Calculations, 58
2.17 Solution Stoichiometry, 59
Problems, 63
Chapter 3 The Structure of the Atom 71
3.1 Rutherford’s Model of the Atom, 72
3.2 Particles and Waves, 73
3.3 Light and Other Forms of Electromagnetic Radiation, 74
3.4 Atomic Spectra, 76
3.5 The Wave-Packet Model of Electromagnetic Radiation, 77
3.6 The Bohr Model of the Atom, 79
3.7 The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom, 80
3.8 Electromagnetic Radiation and Color, 82
3.9 The First Ionization Energy, 83
3.10 The Shell Model, 85
3.11 The Shell Model and the Periodic Table, 87
3.12 Photoelectron Spectroscopy and the Structure of Atoms, 88
3.13 Electron Configurations from Photoelectron Spectroscopy, 89
3.14 Allowed Combinations of Quantum Numbers, 95
3.15 Shells and Subshells of Orbitals, 96
3.16 Orbitals and the Pauli Exclusion Principle, 98
3.17 Predicting Electron Configurations, 100
3.18 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table, 101
3.19 Electron Configurations and Hund’s Rules, 102
3.20 The Sizes of Atoms: Metallic Radii, 104
3.21 The Sizes of Atoms: Covalent Radii, 104
3.22 The Relative Sizes of Atoms and Their Ions, 105
3.23 Patterns in Ionic Radii, 107
3.24 Second, Third, Fourth, and Higher Ionization Energies, 108
3.25 Average Valence Electron Energy (AVEE), 110
3.26 AVEE and Metallicity, 111
Problems, 113
Chapter 4 The Covalent Bond 123
4.1 Valence Electrons, 124
4.2 The Covalent Bond, 125
4.3 How Does the Sharing of Electrons Bond Atoms?, 126
4.4 Using Lewis Structures to Understand the Formation of Bonds, 127
4.5 Drawing Skeleton Structures, 128
4.6 A Step-by-Step Approach to Writing Lewis Structures, 129
4.7 Molecules That Don’t Seem to Satisfy the Octet Rule, 131
4.8 Bond Lengths, 134
4.9 Resonance Hybrids, 136
4.10 Electronegativity, 139
4.11 Partial Charge, 141
4.12 Formal Charge, 142
4.13 The Shapes of Molecules, 145
4.14 Predicting the Shapes of Molecules (The Electron Domain Model), 148
4.15 The Role of Nonbonding Electrons in the ED Model, 151
4.16 Bond Angles, 154
4.17 The Difference Between Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules, 156
Problems, 158
Special Topics
4A.1 Valence Bond Theory, 165
4A.2 Hybrid Atomic Orbitals, 166
4A.3 Molecules with Double and Triple Bonds, 169
4A.4 Molecular Orbital Theory, 170
Problems, 176
Chapter 5 Ionic and Metallic Bonds 177
5.1 Metals, Nonmetals, and Semimetals, 178
5.2 The Active Metals, 178
5.3 Main-Group Metals and Their Ions, 180
5.4 Main-Group Nonmetals and Their Ions, 181
5.5 Transition Metals and Their Ions, 184
5.6 Chemistry and Color, 184
5.7 Predicting the Formulas of Ionic Compounds, 185
5.8 Predicting the Products of Reactions That Produce Ionic Compounds, 186
5.9 Oxides, Peroxides, and Superoxides, 188
5.10 The Ionic Bond, 189
5.11 Structures of Ionic Compounds, 190
5.12 Metallic Bonds, 191
5.13 The Relationship among Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic Bonds, 192
5.14 Bond-Type Triangles, 197
5.15 Properties of Metallic, Covalent, and Ionic Compounds, 201
5.16 Oxidation Numbers, 201
5.17 Calculating Oxidation Numbers, 204
5.18 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions, 207
5.19 Nomenclature, 209
Problems, 213
Chapter 6 Gases 221
6.1 Temperature, 222
6.2 Temperature as a Property of Matter, 223
6.3 The States of Matter, 224
6.4 Elements or Compounds That Are Gases at Room Temperature, 225
6.5 The Properties of Gases, 226
6.6 Pressure versus Force, 227
6.7 Atmospheric Pressure, 229
6.8 Boyle’s Law, 231
6.9 Amontons’ Law, 232
6.10 Charles’ Law, 233
6.11 Gay-Lussac’s Law, 234
6.12 Avogadro’s Hypothesis, 234
6.13 The Ideal Gas Equation, 236
6.14 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures, 237
6.15 Ideal Gas Calculations: Part I, 240
6.16 Ideal Gas Calculations: Part II, 244
6.17 The Kinetic Molecular Theory, 246
6.18 How the Kinetic Molecular Theory Explains the Gas Laws, 247
6.19 Graham’s Laws of Diffusion and Effusion, 250
Problems, 252
Special Topics
6A.1 Deviations from Ideal Gas Law Behavior: The van der Waals Equation, 259
6A.2 Analysis of the van der Waals Constants, 262
Problems, 263
Chapter 7 Making and Breaking of Bonds 264
7.1 Energy, 265
7.2 Heat, 268
7.3 Heat and the Kinetic Molecular Theory, 268
7.4 Specific Heat, 269
7.5 State Functions, 273
7.6 The First Law of Thermodynamics, 274
7.7 Work, 276
7.8 The Enthalpy of a System, 280
7.9 Enthalpies of Reaction, 282
7.10 Enthalpy as a State Function, 285
7.11 Standard-State Enthalpies of Reaction, 287
7.12 Calculating Enthalpies of Reaction, 288
7.13 Enthalpies of Atom Combination, 289
7.14 Using Enthalpies of Atom Combination to Probe Chemical Reactions, 296
7.15 Bond Length and the Enthalpy of Atom Combination, 299
7.16 Hess’s Law, 300
7.17 Enthalpies of Formation, 301
Problems, 305
Chapter 8 Liquids and Solutions 313
8.1 The Structure of Gases, Liquids, and Solids, 314
8.2 Intermolecular Forces, 316
8.3 Relative Strengths of Intermolecular Forces, 320
8.4 The Kinetic Theory of Liquids, 324
8.5 The Vapor Pressure of a Liquid, 325
8.6 Melting Point and Freezing Point, 328
8.7 Boiling Point, 330
8.8 Phase Diagrams, 332
8.9 Hydrogen Bonding and the Anomalous Properties of Water, 333
8.10 Solutions: Like Dissolves Like, 334
8.11 Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Molecules, 337
8.12 Soaps, Detergents, and Dry-Cleaning Agents, 339
8.13 Why Do Some Solids Dissolve in Water?, 341
8.14 Solubility Equilibria, 344
8.15 Solubility Rules, 346
8.16 Net Ionic Equations, 347
Problems, 349
Special Topics
8A.1 Colligative Properties, 357
8A.2 Depression of the Partial Pressure of a Solvent, 358
8A.3 Boiling Point Elevation, 361
8A.4 Freezing Point Depression, 363
Problems, 365
Chapter 9 Solids 367
9.1 Types of Solids, 368
9.2 Molecular and Network Covalent Solids, 369
9.3 The Physical Properties of Molecular and Network Covalent Solids, 372
9.4 Metallic Solids, 373
9.5 Physical Properties That Result from the Structure of Metals, 374
9.6 The Structure of Metals, 375
9.7 Coordination Numbers and the Structures of Metals, 378
9.8 Unit Cells: The Simplest Repeating Unit in a Crystal, 379
9.9 Solid Solutions and Intermetallic Compounds, 380
9.10 Semimetals, 381
9.11 Ionic Solids, 382
9.12 The Search for New Materials, 385
9.13 Measuring the Distance Between Particles in a Unit Cell, 388
9.14 Determining the Unit Cell of a Crystal, 389
9.15 Calculating the Size of an Atom or Ion, 391
Problems, 392
Special Topics
9A.1 Defects, 397
9A.2 Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators, 398
9A.3 Thermal Conductivity, 401
9A.4 Thermal Expansion, 402
9A.5 Glass and Other Ceramics, 403
Problems, 407
Chapter 10 The Connection Between Kinetics and Equilibrium 408
10.1 Reactions That Don’t Go to Completion, 409
10.2 Gas-Phase Reactions, 411
10.3 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction, 413
10.4 The Collision Theory Model of Gas-Phase Reactions, 415
10.5 Equilibrium Constant Expressions, 418
10.6 Reaction Quotients: A Way to Decide Whether a Reaction is at Equilibrium, 423
10.7 Changes in Concentration That Occur as a Reaction Comes to Equilibrium, 425
10.8 Hidden Assumptions That Make Equilibrium Calculations Easier, 430
10.9 What Do We Do When the Assumption Fails?, 434
10.10 The Effect of Temperature on an Equilibrium Constant, 436
10.11 Le Châtelier’s Principle, 437
10.12 Le Châtelier’s Principle and the Haber Process, 443
10.13 What Happens When a Solid Dissolves in Water?, 445
10.14 The Solubility Product Expression, 446
10.15 The Relationship Between Ksp and the Solubility of a Salt, 448
10.16 The Role of the Ion Product (Qsp) in Solubility Calculations, 451
10.17 The Common-Ion Effect, 453
Problems, 458
Chapter 11 Acids and Bases 468
11.1 Properties of Acids and Bases, 469
11.2 The Arrhenius Definition of Acids and Bases, 469
11.3 The Brønsted–Lowry Definition of Acids and Bases, 470
11.4 Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs, 472
11.5 The Role of Water in the Brønsted Model, 474
11.6 To What Extent Does Water Dissociate to Form Ions?, 475
11.7 pH as a Measure of the Concentration of the H3O+ Ion, 478
11.8 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases, 481
11.9 Relative Strengths of Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs, 485
11.10 Relative Strengths of Different Acids and Bases, 486
11.11 Relationship of Structure to Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases, 490
11.12 Strong Acid pH Calculations, 494
11.13 Weak Acid pH Calculations, 494
11.14 Base pH Calculations, 500
11.15 Mixtures of Acids and Bases: Buffers, 504
11.16 Buffers and Buffer Capacity, 506
11.17 Buffers in the Body, 510
11.18 Acid–Base Reactions, 511
11.19 pH Titration Curves, 513
Problems, 520
Special Topics
11A.1 Diprotic Acids, 530
11A.2 Diprotic Bases, 534
11A.3 Compounds That Could Be Either Acids or Bases, 536
Problems, 539
Chapter 12 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 540
12.1 Common Oxidation–Reduction Reactions, 541
12.2 Determining Oxidation Numbers, 542
12.3 Recognizing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions, 544
12.4 Voltaic Cells, 548
12.5 Standard Cell Potentials, 551
12.6 Oxidizing and Reducing Agents, 553
12.7 Relative Strengths of Oxidizing and Reducing Agents, 554
12.8 Batteries, 559
12.9 Electrochemical Cells at Nonstandard Conditions: The Nernst Equation, 563
12.10 Electrolysis and Faraday’s Law, 567
12.11 Electrolysis of Molten NaCl, 571
12.12 Electrolysis of Aqueous NaCl, 572
12.13 Electrolysis of Water, 574
12.14 The Hydrogen Economy, 575
Problems, 576
Special Topics
12.A1 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations, 585
12.A2 Redox Reactions in Acidic Solutions, 585
12.A3 Redox Reactions in Basic Solutions, 589
12.A4 Molecular Redox Reactions, 590
Problems, 592
Chapter 13 Chemical Thermodynamics 594
13.1 Spontaneous Chemical and Physical Processes, 595
13.2 Entropy and Disorder, 596
13.3 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics, 597
13.4 Standard-State Entropies of Reaction, 600
13.5 The Third Law of Thermodynamics, 600
13.6 Calculating Entropy Changes for Chemical Reactions, 601
13.7 Gibbs Free Energy, 606
13.8 The Effect of Temperature on the Free Energy of a Reaction, 612
13.9 Beware of Oversimplifications, 613
13.10 Standard-State Free Energies of Reaction, 613
13.11 Equilibria Expressed in Partial Pressures, 615
13.12 Interpreting Standard-State Free Energy of Reaction Data, 619
13.13 The Relationship between Free Energy and Equilibrium Constants, 620
13.14 The Temperature Dependence of Equilibrium Constants, 626
13.15 Gibbs Free Energies of Formation and Absolute Entropies, 630
Problems, 632
Chapter 14 Kinetics 640
14.1 The Forces That Control a Chemical Reaction, 641
14.2 Chemical Kinetics, 642
14.3 Is the Rate of Reaction Constant?, 642
14.4 Instantaneous Rates of Reaction, 644
14.5 Rate Laws and Rate Constants, 645
14.6 The Rate Law Versus the Stoichiometry of a Reaction, 646
14.7 Order and Molecularity, 647
14.8 A Collision Theory Model of Chemical Reactions, 650
14.9 The Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions, 652
14.10 Zero-Order Reactions, 654
14.11 Determining the Order of a Reaction from Rates of Reaction, 655
14.12 The Integrated Form of Zero-, First-, and Second-Order Rate Laws, 658
14.13 Determining the Order of a Reaction with the Integrated Form of Rate Laws 663
14.14 Reactions That Are First-Order in Two Reactants, 666
14.15 The Activation Energy of Chemical Reactions, 667
14.16 Catalysts and the Rates of Chemical Reactions, 669
14.17 Determining the Activation Energy of a Reaction, 671
14.18 The Kinetics of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions, 673
Problems, 675
Special Topics
14A.1 Deriving the Integrated Rate Laws, 686
Chapter 15 Nuclear Chemistry 688
15.1 Radioactivity, 689
15.2 The Structure of the Atom, 690
15.3 Modes of Radioactive Decay, 692
15.4 Neutron-Rich Versus Neutron-Poor Nuclides, 694
15.5 Binding Energy Calculations, 697
15.6 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay, 700
15.7 Dating by Radioactive Decay, 703
15.8 Ionizing Versus Nonionizing Radiation, 705
15.9 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation, 706
15.10 Natural Versus Induced Radioactivity, 709
15.11 Nuclear Fission, 713
15.12 Nuclear Fusion, 715
15.13 Nuclear Synthesis, 717
15.14 Nuclear Medicine, 719
Problems, 720
Chapter 16 Organic Chemistry 723
16.1 What Is an Organic Compound?, 724
16.2 The Saturated Hydrocarbons or Alkanes, 726
16.3 Rotation Around C—C Bonds, 729
16.4 The Nomenclature of Alkanes, 730
16.5 The Unsaturated Hydrocarbons: Alkenes and Alkynes, 733
16.6 Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Their Derivatives, 735
16.7 The Chemistry of Petroleum Products, 737
16.8 The Chemistry of Coal, 740
16.9 Functional Groups, 742
16.10 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions, 746
16.11 Alkyl Halides, 750
16.12 Alcohols and Ethers, 752
16.13 Aldehydes and Ketones, 755
16.14 Reactions at the Carbonyl Group, 757
16.15 Carboxylic Acids and Carboxylate Ions, 759
16.16 Esters, 761
16.17 Amines, Alkaloids, and Amides, 763
16.18 Alkene Stereoisomers, 765
16.19 Stereogenic Atoms, 768
16.20 Optical Activity, 771
Problems, 774
Appendix A
A.1 Systems of Units A-2
The English Units of Measurement A-2
SI Units of Measurement A-3
Derived SI Units A-4
Non-SI Units A-4
Conversion Factors A-5
A.2 Uncertainty in Measurement A-6
Systematic and Random Errors A-6
Accuracy and Precision A-7
A.3 Significant figures A-8
Addition and Subtraction with Significant Figures A-9
Multiplication and Division with Significant Figures A-10
Rounding Off A-10
A.4 Scientific Notation A-10
A.5 The Graphical Treatment of Data A-12
A.6 Significant Figures and Unit Conversion Worksheet A-15
Significant Figures A-15
Counting Significant Figures in a Measurement A-15
Measurements versus Definitions A-18
Unit Conversions A-19
Appendix B
Table B.1 Values of Selected Fundamental Constants B-2
Table B.2 Selected Conversion Factors B-2
Table B.3 The Vapor Pressure of Water B-3
Table B.4 Radii of Atoms and Ions B-4
Table B.5 Ionization Energies B-6
Table B.6 Electron Affinities B-8
Table B.7 Electronegativities B-9
Table B.8 Acid-Dissociation Equilibrium Constants B-10
Table B.9 Base-Ionization Equilibrium Constants B-11
Table B.10 Solubility Product Equilibrium Constants B-12
Table B.11 Complex Formation Equilibrium Constants B-13
Table B.12 Standard Reduction Potentials B-14
Table B.13 Standard-State Enthalpies, Free Energies and Entropies of Atom Combination B- 17
Table B.14 Bond-Dissociation Enthalpies B-25
Table B.15 Electron Configuration of the First 86 Elements B-26
Table B.16 Standard-State Enthalpy of Formation, Free Energy of Formation and Absolute Entropy Data B-28
Appendix C
Answers to Selected Problems C-1
Appendix D
Answers to Checkpoints D-1
Photo Credits P-1
Index I-1
Modules (available at www.wiley.com/college/spencer)
Module 1 Chemistry of the Nonmetals
Module 2 Transition Metal Chemistry
Module 3 Complex Ion Equilibria
Module 4 Organic Chemistry: Structure and Nomenclature of Hydrocarbons
Module 5 Organic Chemistry: Functional Groups
Module 6 Organic Chemistry: Reaction Mechanisms
Module 7 Polymer Chemistry
Module 8 Biochemistry
Module 9 Chemical Analysis
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 4.3.2011 |
|---|---|
| Verlagsort | New York |
| Sprache | englisch |
| Maße | 218 x 282 mm |
| Gewicht | 2245 g |
| Themenwelt | Naturwissenschaften ► Chemie |
| ISBN-10 | 0-470-58711-3 / 0470587113 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-0-470-58711-9 / 9780470587119 |
| Zustand | Neuware |
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