History of Toxicology and Environmental Health (eBook)

Toxicology in Antiquity II

Philip Wexler (Autor)

eBook Download: PDF | EPUB

2014 | 1. Auflage
152 Seiten
Elsevier Science (Verlag)
978-0-12-801634-3 (ISBN)

Infos

This volume, Toxicology in Antiquity II, continues to tell the story of the roots of toxicology in ancient times. Readers learn that before scientific research methods were developed, toxicology thrived as a very practical discipline. Toxicologists are particularly proud of the rich and storied history of their field and there are few resources available that cover the discipline from a historical perspective. People living in ancient civilizations readily learned to distinguish safe from hazardous substances, how to avoid these hazardous substances and how to use them to inflict harm on enemies. Volume II explores the use of poison as weapons in war and assassinations, early instances of air pollution, the use of hallucinogens and entheogens, and the role of the snake in ancient toxicology. - Provides the historical background for understanding modern toxicology - Illustrates the ways ancient civilizations learned to distinguish safe from hazardous substances, how to avoid the hazardous substances and how to use them against enemies - Details scholars who compiled compendia of toxic agents

Philip Wexler has written and edited numerous publications related to toxicology and toxico-informatics, as well as taught and otherwise lectured globally on these topics. He has been Editor-in-Chief of Elsevier's Encyclopedia of Toxicology including the current, 4th edition (2023) since its inception as well as Information Resources in Toxicology (Elsevier. 5th ed. 2020), and Chemicals, Environment, Health: A Global Management Perspective (CRC Press/Taylor and Francis. 2011). He has served as Associate Editor for Toxicology Information and Resources for Elsevier's journal, Toxicology and edited special issues on Digital Information and Tools. Phil is also overseeing a monographic series on Toxicology History. Volumes have been published on Antiquity, the Middle Ages and Renaissance, modern clinical toxicology, risk assessment, alternative test methods, food and nutrition, and disasters, with more in the planning stages. He is a co-Editor-in-Chief of the Taylor and Francis journal, Global Security: Health, Science, and Policy and a past recipient of the US Society of Toxicology's (SOT) Public Communications Award.Phil recently retired from a long federal career as a Technical Information Specialist at the National Library of Medicine's (NLM) Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program, within its Specialized Information Services Division (SIS). His initial position at NLM was as a Fellow of its Associate Program and early work included a brief stint in the Reference Services Section. A recipient of the NLM Regents Award for Scholarly or Technical Achievement and the Distinguished Technical Communication Award of the Washington chapter of the Society for Technical Communication, he was team leader for the development of the ToxLearn online multi-module tutorials, a joint activity with the SOT. Phil had also been project officer for the LactMed file on drugs and lactation, and the IRIS (Integrated Risk Information System) and ITER (International Toxicity Estimates for Risk) risk assessment databases.Additionally, Phil had been the guiding force behind, and federal liaison to, the World Library of Toxicology, Chemical Safety, and Environmental Health (WLT) prototype, a free global Web portal that provided the scientific community and public with links to major government agencies, non-governmental organizations, universities, professional societies, and other groups addressing issues related to toxicology, public health, and environmental health prior to its migration to the INND/Toxipedia group. This multilingual tool, fed by information from a roster of international Country Correspondents, has been praised as a successful test resource for overcoming barriers to the sharing of information between countries, enhancing collaboration, and minimizing duplication. Currently on hiatus, it awaits a visionary funding source to become operational.A trustee of the Toxicology Education Foundation (TEF), Phil had previously served as its federal liaison. He is a past Chair of SOT's World Wide Web Advisory Team, and active in its Ethical, Legal, Forensics, and Social Issues Specialty Section. He was a member of the Education and Communications Work Group of the CDC/ATSDR's National Conversation on Public Health and Chemical Exposure. A co-developer of the Toxicology History Room, he is co-founder and was federal liaison to the Toxicology History Association. For many years he organized and emceed the popular Toxicology Quiz Bowl at the annual SOT meetings.In addition to pursuing toxicology-related activities in his retirement, Phil is happy to have more time to embrace other lifelong interests. He is the author of five poetry collections, a mosaic artist, and a cactus and succulent enthusiast.

Inhalt

Front Cover 1
History of Toxicology and Environmental Health 4
Copyright Page 5
Toxicology in Antiquity 6
Contents 8
List of Contributors 12
Foreword 14
References 15
Preface to the Series and Volumes 1 and 2 16
1 Murder, Execution, and Suicide in Ancient Greece and Rome 18
Suggested Readings 24
2 Chemical and Biological Warfare in Antiquity 26
2.1 The Concept of Toxic Weaponry in Greco-Roman and Indian Mythology 27
2.2 Poisons from Plants in Historical Warfare 27
2.3 Snake Venom Arrows 28
2.4 Plague and Contagion 30
2.5 Poisoning Water Sources and Food Supplies 31
2.6 Venomous Insects, Snakes, and Scorpions 32
2.7 Aerosol and Incendiary Weapons 33
2.8 Practical Issues and Ethical Qualms 35
References 37
3 Anthropogenic Air Pollution in Ancient Times 38
3.1 Pollution of the Environment in Ancient Times 38
3.2 Lead in Ancient Times 43
3.2.1 Lead Mining and Exploitation 43
3.2.2 The Utilization of Lead 44
3.2.3 Illnesses Caused by Lead 45
3.2.4 Lead Pollution in Ancient Tooth Samples from the United Kingdom 47
3.2.5 Lead Pollution on Regional and Hemispheric Scales 48
3.3 Copper in Ancient Times 50
3.3.1 Copper Mining and Exploitation 50
3.3.2 Copper Pollution on Regional and Hemispheric Scales 52
3.4 Environmental Awareness in Ancient Israel 53
Acknowledgment 55
References 56
4 Poisoning in Ancient Rome: The Legal Framework, The Nature of Poisons, and Gender Stereotypes 59
4.1 Veneficium and Legal Terminology 59
4.2 Perpetrators, Trials, Stereotypes 60
4.3 Training for the Courts 62
4.4 Jurists and the Interpretation of Laws 64
Selected Bibliography 68
5 Asclepius and the Snake as Toxicological Symbols in Ancient Greece and Rome 69
References 75
6 Drugs, Suppositories, and Cult Worship in Antiquity 77
6.1 Introduction 77
6.2 Drugs and Cults 77
6.3 Bacchants and Viper Venom 79
6.4 Ancient Vaginal Suppositories 80
6.5 Drugs and Sexuality 81
6.6 Aphrodisiac Suppositories and Magic 82
6.7 Conclusion 83
References 84
7 Kohl Use in Antiquity: Effects on the Eye 85
7.1 Introduction 85
7.2 Protective Effect against UV Radiation 89
7.3 Antimicrobial Action and Biomedical Importance 90
References 93
8 “Gleaming and Deadly White”: Toxic Cosmetics in the Roman World 96
8.1 A Fair Complexion 98
8.2 Rouge 101
8.3 Eye Makeup 102
8.4 Hair Removers 103
References 105
9 Poisonous Medicine in Ancient China 106
9.1 Etymology of du 106
9.2 du in Chinese Pharmacology 107
9.3 Aconite, the Power to Cure 108
9.4 Aconite, the Power to Kill 110
9.5 From du to pharmakon 111
References 113
10 The Venomous Virgin: Fact or Fantasy? 115
10.1 Secretum Secretorum 116
10.2 Other Versions 118
10.3 Conclusion 119
References 120
11 Mushroom Intoxication in Mesoamerica 121
References 132
12 Entheogens in Ancient Times 133
References 142
13 Entheogens (Psychedelic Drugs) and the Ancient Mystery Religions 143
13.1 Pharmacological Roots of Religion 143
13.2 Hermeneutics and a Definition of Terms 144
13.3 Toxicology 147
13.4 Sources, Chemistry, and Effects 149
13.4.1 Amanita Muscaria: “Poison” Apple of the Inner Eye 150
13.4.2 Ergot Alkaloids: A Grail Quest 150
13.4.3 Psilocybin and Psilocin (Mushrooms) and DMT, 5Meo DMT: Spirit Molecules 150
13.4.4 Tropane Alkaloids 151
Additional Readings 151
References 152

Textauszug

Chapter 1

Murder, Execution, and Suicide in Ancient Greece and Rome

Alain Touwaide

Judging from the many cases of poisoning reported in ancient literature involving such notables as Socrates in 399 BCE, Cleopatra in 30 CE, and Nero in 68 CE, one could conclude that the use of poisons for criminal purposes, executions, or suicides was widespread in antiquity. A closer examination of the evidence, however, shows that not all such historical narratives can be accepted at face value. Poisons were certainly used in Socrates’ execution, but the exact details of their use in other cases cannot be verified. Roman laws forbidding the use of poisons clearly indicate that poisons were, in fact, used. However, precise details about the agents used and their methods of administration are rarely available. Also, not only were poisons used in fact but they generated a body of myths and literature blurring the line, in many instances, between reality and imagination.

Keywords

suicide; execution; murder; myths and legends; legislation; imagination

The political, scientific, cultural, and artistic life of the ancient world may be highlighted by such remarkable individuals as Pericles (ca. 495–429 BCE), Aristotle (384–322 BCE), Thucydides (460–395 BCE), and Phidias (490–430 BCE) in Greece, and Augustus (63 BCE; reign. 27 BCE–15 CE), Pliny (23/4–79 CE), and Cicero (106–43 BCE), as well as by Pompeii’s many fresco painters in the Roman world. It also seems to have been punctuated by treacherous murders, summary executions, and self-inflicted death for many reasons ranging from lovesickness to desperation and shame. Many illustrious individuals have been reported to have committed suicide: for example, the Athenian orator Demosthenes (384–322 BCE); the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra (69–30 BCE); even the philosopher Aristotle according to the ancient historian and philosopher Diogenes Laertius and the Byzantine lexicographer and historian of literature Hesychius; and the Carthaginian general Hannibal (247/6–183 BCE).

The case of the Athenian politician and general, Themistocles, (ca. 525–ca. 459) is revealing. According to historical accounts, he committed suicide by drinking bull’s blood, which in antiquity was believed to be highly toxic (and it probably was due to toxins such as botulinum, anthrax, or others resident in cattle). As the story goes, after he defeated the Persian fleet attacking Athens in the Bay of Salamis in 480 BCE, Themistocles was banished from Athens for political reasons and escaped to Persia. There, King Artaxerxes I (reign. 465–424/3 BCE) ordered him to lead a military operation against Greece. Themistocles refused and reportedly committed suicide rather than betray his country. Closer examination of the story reveals, however, that following Themistocles’s death (which probably was due to natural causes) its details were deliberately misinterpreted to save the reputation of an esteemed, victorious general turned traitor. To preserve the memory of his sacrifice, a statue was erected depicting Themistocles slaughtering a bull for sacrifice, thereby perpetuating the legend that he committed suicide rather than attack his native land.

Although suicide, murder, and execution were certainly a reality in ancient life, they were not necessarily as frequent occurrences as popular legend, political propaganda, or other ill-intentioned maneuvers would have us believe. At any rate, the use of lethal substances may be questioned. Often documentary evidence is anecdotal and cannot be corroborated for lack of supplementary and independent sources, or for presenting contradictory or implausible scenarios, as Cleopatra’s death suggests. A suicide carried out through a cobra’s organized biting seems to be more speculative than likely. Ancient medical literature credited cobra’s venom with causing instant paralysis, leading to immediate death. A suicide with no suffering was ideal and would have certainly been the supposedly self-indulgent Cleopatra’s choice. Nevertheless, it is highly improbable that a cobra could have been brought into her apartments without having been noticed. Cleopatra and Egypt were very important to the Roman Empire because of Egypt’s rich resources, especially its abundant agricultural production, which Rome needed to feed its people. Indeed, Cleopatra herself was viewed as a precious political commodity. At the same time, because of her liaison with Marc Antony, who had been defeated by Octavius, the future Emperor Augustus, Cleopatra became politically undesirable. Under these conditions, Cleopatra was kept under strict control in her palace where she could easily be assassinated. Her assassination was extremely risky, for it could well have provoked mob action and have led to Rome’s loss of control over Egypt. Crediting her with suicide—for reasons of desperation, political calculation, or any other reason—was the ideal coverup and so we will probably never know exactly how she died.

Murder was more often committed by stabbing than by poisoning. Caesar (100–44 BCE) is the best example. He was stabbed in plain light, in the Curia, by a group of conspirators, including his adoptive son (“Tu quoque, Brute, fili mi”—“You too, Brutus”). In many other cases, however, toxic substances were used. In the ancient Greek world, sovereigns who succeeded Alexander the Great and divided his empire showed a particular interest in poisoning. Antigonus Gonatas (ca. 320–239 BCE), king of Macedonia, Antiochus III (ca. 242–187 BCE), king of Seleucia, and Ptolemaeus IV Philopator, king of Egypt (ca. 244–205 BCE) were among such kings, together with Attalus III Philometer Evergetes, king of Pergamum (reign. 138–133 BCE). to whom Nicander dedicated one of his poems. According to historical sources, Attalus cultivated medicinal and toxic plants, including henbane, hellebore, hemlock, and aconite. He is credited with testing their toxic properties on individuals who had been sentenced to death. The purpose was not only to prepare poisons and to identify their lethal doses, but also–if not primarily–to make use of them, particularly in a time when political rivalry was intense and coups d’etat were not rare. The most famous among these Hellenistic kings who were manipulators of poisons is without doubt Mithradates VI Eupator, king of Pontus (133; reign. 120–63 BCE). An ambitious and unscrupulous politician, Mithradates had assassinated several members of his court and even members of his family (including his own mother) to preserve his throne. Furthermore, he fiercely opposed the Roman conquest of Asia Minor and inflicted severe defeat on Roman troops. Correctly fearing that he might be poisoned–whether by his own entourage or by the Romans–he absorbed increasing doses of all possible poisons to acquire immunity. He was so successful that, when he was eventually captured by the Romans in 63 BCE and he wanted to kill himself in order to escape the clutches of his captors, he consumed a poison that he always carried with him but did not die. He had no other recourse than to ask his slaves to run him through with a sword.

Poisons were no less common in Rome. As early as 449 BCE, the Lex duodecim tabellarum (Law of the Twelve Tables) prohibited poisons, thus clearly implying that they had been in use. The law probably did not have much effect, as a new one needed to be promulgated in 81 BCE: the famous Lex Cornelia de sicariis et veneficis (Cornelia Law on Assassins and Poisoners). Again, this new legislation did not necessarily prevent poisoning. Indeed, half a century later, the Latin poet Tibullus (ca. 55–19 BCE) wrote an elegy in which he recalled a sickness during which he thought he would die. Imploring mercy from Persephone, the Queen of the Underworld, he proclaimed that he did not poison anybody. Murder by poison even took place within the imperial palace, as is shown by the case of Claudius (10; emp. 41, d. 54 CE). Claudius was known to be fond of mushrooms, and so it was that he was served with an abundant plate of mushrooms, supposedly of boletus, but they might have been mixed with a poison. Whatever the toxic agent used, Claudius did die. It was his second wife, Agrippina (15–59 CE), who initiated plans to get Claudius out of the way so that her son Nero (37; emp. 54; d. 68) would become emperor. Claudius’s poisoning was orchestrated by Agrippina in collusion with a woman named Locusta, who was supposedly from Gaul, had mastered the art of poisons, and had been sentenced to jail for poisoning. Taken out of prison, she helped engineer Claudius’s murder. Ironically enough, she also prepared the poison that Nero himself would later use to kill himself. As for Locusta herself, she was executed under Emperor Galba (24; emp. 68–69), who, in turn, was killed by mutinous soldiers.

With rare exception, the exact nature of the poisons used for murder–whether they were prepared by an expert such as Locusta or by less competent assassins–is not known. The art of compounding poisons seems to have flourished during the first century BCE. Interestingly...

Produkt-Details

• Erscheint lt. Verlag: 18.9.2014
• Sprache: englisch
• Themenwelt: Medizin / Pharmazie ► Gesundheitsfachberufe
• Themenwelt: Studium ► 2. Studienabschnitt (Klinik) ► Pharmakologie / Toxikologie
• Themenwelt: Studium ► Querschnittsbereiche ► Prävention / Gesundheitsförderung
• ISBN-10: 0-12-801634-5 / 0128016345
• ISBN-13: 978-0-12-801634-3 / 9780128016343