Cardiovascular MR Manual (eBook)
XX, 487 Seiten
Springer London (Verlag)
978-1-84996-362-6 (ISBN)
The aim of this book is to provide a compact text for practicing physicians and cardiologists or radiologists in training that contains all aspects of cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging relevant for the appropriate use of this imaging modality in clinical practice. In a tutorial style, the book provides an overview of the relevant physics that govern CMR imaging and provide details on commonly accepted indications for referral. The book also provides the necessary background information to get trainees prepared for training in a CMR center. The emphasis of the book will be on practical, hands-on information in a format small enough to be carried about for ease of use. The book will be a dense but extremely portable reference for all cardiologists involved in using or requesting MRI of their cardiac patients. This will be an all-in-one resource and of great clinical value.
Cardiovascular MR Manual 2
Copyright Page 3
Foreword 4
Contents 6
Contributors 17
Part I:How Does CMRWork? 19
Chapter 1: What’s Inside the Magnet and Why? 20
1.1 The Main Magnet 21
1.2 The Gradient Coil Assembly 23
1.3 Integral Radiofrequency (RF) Body Transmitter Coil 25
1.4 Receiver Coil 26
Summary 27
Chapter 2: The MRI Environment 28
2.1 The Examination Room and RF Shielding 28
2.2 The Magnetic Fringe Field Hazard and the Controlled Area 28
2.3 Active and Passive Magnetic Shielding 31
Summary 32
Chapter 3: Protons and Spins: The Origin of the MRI Signal 33
3.1 MRI Images: What Are We Looking At? 33
3.2 Proton Spin and Net Magnetization 33
3.3 What Determines the Size of the Net Magnetization? 34
Summary 36
Chapter 4: Generating a Signal: RF Pulses and Echoes 37
4.1 How Do We Generate a Signal? 37
Is the Larmor Frequency the Same for Other Nuclei? 38
4.2 What Does the RF Pulse Do to the Magnetization? 38
4.3 Longitudinal and Transverse Components of Magnetization 40
4.4 Flip Angle and Common RF pulses 40
4.4.1 Variable-Flip Angle RF Excitation Pulse 40
4.4.2 90° RF Excitation Pulse 41
4.4.3 180° RF Pulse (Refocusing Pulse) 43
4.4.4 180° RF Pulse (Inversion Pulse) 43
4.5 What Does the MRI Signal Look Like? 44
Summary 46
Chapter 5: Relaxation Times, Gradient Echoes, and Spin Echoes 47
5.1 Relaxation: What Happens After the RF Excitation Pulse? 47
5.1.1 What is T1 Relaxation? 47
5.1.2 Transverse Relaxation and MRI Signal Decay 49
What’s the Significance of the T1 Value? 49
5.1.3 What is T2 Relaxation? 50
What’s the Significance of T2 Value? 51
5.1.4 What is T2* Relaxation? 51
5.2 MR Echoes 53
5.2.1 Gradient Echoes 53
5.2.2 Spin Echoes 55
Summary 59
Chapter 6: Making an Image: Locating and Encoding Signals in Space 60
6.1 Selecting an Image Slice 60
6.2 Encoding the MR Signal Within the Slice 62
6.3 Phase Encoding 62
6.4 Frequency Encoding 64
6.5 How is the Frequency-Encoded Signal Decoded? 66
6.6 How do we make sure that the Gradients we apply for Imaging don’t destroy the signal? 69
6.7 Why isn’t a Single Phase and Frequency Encoded Signal enough to Reconstruct an Image? 70
6.8 Field of View in the Phase Encoding Direction 71
6.9 Phase Encoding, Image Matrix, and Acquisition Time 72
Summary 74
Chapter 7: Image Space and k-Space 75
How is a Data Point in k-Space Related to the MR Signal? 80
Summary 81
Chapter 8: Imaging Parameters and Image Attributes 82
8.1 Spatial Resolution and Image Acquisition Time 82
8.2 Noise and Signal-to-Noise Ratio 83
8.3 Factors That Determine Image Quality 84
8.3.1 Intrinsic Signal Amplitude 84
8.3.2 Signal Averaging 85
The Nomenclature of Signal Averaging 85
8.3.3 SNR and Receiver Bandwidth 86
8.4 Imaging Parameters: Practical Examples 87
Summary of Factors Affecting Image Quality (SNR) 90
8.5 2D and 3D Imaging 92
Summary 94
Chapter 9: Improving SNR with Surface Coils and Array Coils 95
RF Coils for Pediatric CMR 97
Summary 98
Chapter 10: Pulse Sequences and Image Contrast 99
10.1 Dependence of the MR Signal on TR and TE 99
10.2 Image Contrast and Weighting 102
10.3 Long TR and Short TE 104
10.4 Short TR, Short TE 105
10.5 Long TR, Long TE 106
10.6 Short TR, Long TE 107
Summary 108
Chapter 11: Gradient Echo Versus Spin Echo 109
Summary 114
Chapter 12: Black Blood Versus Bright Blood Imaging 115
12.1 Black Blood (Spin Echo Pulse Sequence) 115
12.2 Black Blood – Double Inversion Preparation Pulses 117
Signal Voids and Vessel Patency 119
12.3 Bright Blood (Gradient Echo Pulse Sequence) 119
Summary 122
Chapter 13: Dealing with Cardiac Motion: How Do We Image the Beating Heart? 123
13.1 Still Imaging 124
13.2 Cine Imaging 126
13.3 Triggering Versus Gating for Cine Imaging 127
13.4 Prospective Versus Retrospective ECG Gating 129
13.5 Spoiled Gradient Echo versus bSSFP 130
Summary 134
Chapter 14: Dealing with Respiratory Motion 135
14.1 Respiratory Compensation (Respiratory Gating) 135
14.2 Respiratory Gating using Navigator Echoes 137
Summary 138
Chapter 15: Fast Imaging: How Do We Speed Up the Image Acquisition? 139
15.1 Turbo (or Fast) Spin Echo 139
15.2 Turbo (or Fast) Gradient Echo 141
15.3 Echo Planar-Imaging (EPI) 143
15.4 Reducing the Total Number of Phase Encoding Steps Acquired for Each Image 145
15.5 Parallel Imaging 147
Summary 149
Chapter 16: Special Pulse Sequences for Cardiac Imaging 150
16.1 Selective Tissue Saturation 150
16.2 Frequency Selective Fat Suppression 152
16.2.1 Pros and Cons of Frequency Selective Fat Suppression (cf. STIR) 154
16.3 STIR and Turbo STIR 154
16.3.1 Pros and Cons of STIR (cf. Frequency Selective Fat Suppression) 156
16.4 Black Blood FSE/TSE (Double Inversion) 156
16.5 Black Blood turboSTIR (Triple Inversion Recovery) 158
16.6 Inversion Recovery Fast/Turbo Gradient Echo 160
16.7 Navigator-Gated 3D Fast/Turbo Gradient Echo (Coronary Artery Imaging) 162
16.7.1 Key Features of a Navigator-Gated 3D Coronary Artery Imaging Sequence 164
16.8 Cine Gradient Echo 164
16.9 Velocity Encoded Cine Gradient Echo (Velocity Mapping) 166
16.10 Myocardial Tagging (Binomial Pulses) 170
16.11 Saturation Recovery, Single-Shot Fast Gradient Echo for Dynamic, Contrast-Enhanced Myocardial Perfusion Imaging 173
Summary 176
Chapter 17: Common Artifacts 177
17.1 Image Aliasing 177
Why Doesn’t Aliasing Occur in the Frequency Encoding Direction? 178
17.2 Aliasing Artifacts with Parallel Imaging 179
17.3 Ghosting Artifacts from Motion (Respiratory) 181
17.4 Ghosting Artifacts from Motion (Pulsatile Flow) 182
What is Flow Compensation? 184
17.5 Flow-Related Signal Loss and Flow Jets 184
17.6 Chemical Shift Artifact 185
17.7 Magnetic Susceptibility Artifacts 188
17.8 Metallic Artifact 190
17.9 Radiofrequency Interference Artifacts 192
Summary 193
Part II:How CMRis Performed 194
Chapter 18: The Basics of a CMR Study 195
18.1 The Referral 195
Key Points 196
The CMR Referral Form 196
Tips and Tricks for Referrals 196
18.2 Indications for CMR 197
The 10 Most Common Indications for CMR 198
18.3 Contraindications/Safety 198
18.3.1 Screening 199
18.3.2 Contraindications to CMR Scanning 200
18.3.2.1 Medical Devices 202
18.3.2.2 Heating Effects 203
18.3.2.3 Contrast Agents and Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis 203
18.3.2.4 Performing Stress Examinations in CMR 205
18.3.2.5 Other Safety Issues 205
Key Messages for CMR Safety 206
Common Devices that are NOT Contraindications for MR Imaging (Considered as “MR Conditional”) 206
18.4 Setting Up a CMR Study 207
18.4.1 Equipment 207
18.4.2 ECG Signals 208
Tips and Tricks for ECG Positioning 210
18.4.3 Patient Preparation 209
18.4.4 Commencing the Scan 210
References 211
Chapter 19: Components of CMR Protocols 212
Key Points 212
19.1 Introduction 212
19.2 Localizing Images and Simple Planning 213
19.2.1 Interactive Planning 218
19.3 Anatomical and Morphological Imaging 218
19.3.1 T1-Weighted (Black Blood) Imaging 219
Tips and Tricks 221
19.3.2 T2-Weighted (Black Blood) Imaging 221
Edema Module 222
Tips and Tricks 223
19.3.3 T2* Relaxometry 223
T2* Module 224
Tips and Tricks 225
19.4 Cine Imaging (Including Real-Time Cine Imaging) 225
19.4.1 Real-Time Cine Imaging 226
19.4.2 Quantitation 227
LV Function Module 228
RV Function Module 229
Tips and Tricks 230
19.5 Myocardial Tagging 230
Tagging Module 232
Tips and Tricks Tagging 232
19.6 Phase Contrast Velocity Encoding 232
Phase-Contrast Velocity-Encoding Module 234
Tips and Tricks Velocity-Encoded Imaging 235
19.7 Contrast-Enhanced MR Angiography (Excluding Coronary Arteries) 235
MR Angiography Module 237
Tips and Tricks MR Angiography 238
19.8 Myocardial Perfusion CMR 238
19.8.1 Reproducible Planning of Three Short Axis Slices 240
Perfusion Module 242
19.8.2 Dark Rim Artifact 242
19.8.3 Interpretation of CMR Myocardial Perfusion Images 243
19.8.3.1 Visual Assessment 243
19.8.3.2 Quantitative/Semi-Quantitative Assessment 244
Tips and Tricks 246
19.9 Early and Late Gadolinium Enhancement 246
19.9.1 Protocol for Early and Late Gadolinium Enhancement Imaging 248
Early and Late Gadolinium Enhancement Module 249
Tips and Tricks 250
19.10 Coronary Artery Imaging 251
19.10.1 Whole Heart Technique 252
19.10.2 Targeted Technique 255
Coronary Artery Imaging Module 256
Tips and Tricks 257
Chapter 20: Anatomy by CMR 258
20.1 Cross-sectional Anatomy 258
20.2 Customized Views 266
20.3 Comparison with Other Imaging Modalities 266
Tips and Tricks 266
Chapter 21: The CMR Report 267
21.1 A Structured Approach to Reporting a CMR Study 267
21.2 The Report 269
Reference 270
Part III:Clinical Indicationsfor CMR Imaging 271
Chapter 22: Diseases of the aorta 272
The Role of CMR in Aortic Disease 272
CMR Protocol in Aortic Disease 272
22.1 Introduction 273
22.2 CMR versus Other Imaging Modalities 273
22.3 CMR in the Assessment of Aortic Atherosclerosis and Dissection 274
22.3.1 Acute Intramural Hematoma 274
22.3.2 Penetrating Atherosclerotic Ulcer 275
22.3.3 Aortic Dissection 276
22.4 Aortic Aneurysm 277
CMR Report in Aortic Disease 282
Key Points CMR in Aortic Disease 281
Tips and Tricks 281
Chapter 23: Cardiomyopathies 283
23.1 General Overview 283
23.2 Dilated Cardiomyopathy (DCM) 284
CMR Protocol in DCM 284
23.2.1 Introduction 284
23.2.2 CMR versus Other Imaging Modalities in DCM 285
The Role of CMR in DCM 285
23.2.3 Findings on CMR 286
23.2.4 Differential Diagnosis 286
23.2.5 Case Example 287
Tips and Tricks 286
Key Points of CMR in DCM 287
CMR Report in DCM 288
23.3 Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM) 288
CMR Protocol in HCM 288
23.3.1 Introduction 288
23.3.2 CMR versus Other Imaging Modalities 289
The Role of CMR in HCM 289
23.3.3 Findings on CMR 289
23.3.4 Differential Diagnosis 290
Tips and Tricks 290
Key Points of CMR in HCM 290
23.3.5 Case Example 291
CMR Report in HCM 293
23.4 Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy (ARVC) 294
CMR Protocol in ARVC 294
23.4.1 Introduction 294
23.4.2 CMR versus Other Imaging Modalities 296
The Role of CMR in ARVC 296
23.4.3 Findings on CMR 297
23.4.4 Differential Diagnosis 297
Tips and Tricks 298
Key Points of CMR in ARVC 298
23.4.5 Case Example 298
CMR Report in ARVC 301
23.5 Left Ventricular Non-Compaction Cardiomyopathy (LVNC) 302
CMR Protocol in LVNC 302
23.5.1 Introduction 302
23.5.2 CMR versus Other Imaging Modalities 302
23.5.3 Role of CMR in LVNC 302
23.5.4 Findings on CMR 303
23.5.5 Differential Diagnosis 303
Tips and Tricks 303
Key Points of CMR in LVNC 303
23.5.6 Case Example 304
CMR Report in LVNC 306
23.6 Inflammatory Diseases: Myocarditis 306
CMR Protocol in Myocarditis 306
23.6.1 Introduction 306
23.6.2 CMR versus Other Imaging Modalities 307
Role of CMR in Myocarditis 307
23.6.3 Findings on CMR 308
23.6.4 Differential Diagnosis 308
Tips and Tricks 309
Key Points CMR in Myocarditis 309
23.6.5 Case Example 308
CMR Report in Myocarditis 312
23.7 Inflammatory Diseases: Sarcoidosis 313
CMR Protocol in Sarcoidosis 313
23.7.1 Introduction 313
The Role of CMR in Sarcoidosis 313
23.7.2 Findings on CMR 313
23.7.3 Differential Diagnosis 314
Tips and Tricks 314
Key Points CMR in Sarcoidosis 314
23.7.4 Case Example 314
CMR Report in Sarcoidosis 317
23.8 Inflammatory Diseases: Vasculitis (Churg–Strauss Syndrome) 318
CMR Protocol in Churg–Strauss Syndrome 318
23.8.1 Introduction 318
The Role of CMR in Churg–Strauss Syndrome 318
23.8.2 Findings on CMR 318
23.8.3 Differential Diagnosis 319
Tips and Tricks 319
Key Points CMR in Churg–Strauss Syndrome 319
23.8.4 Case Example 319
CMR Report in Churg–Strauss Syndrome 320
23.9 Infiltrative/Storage Diseases: Amyloidosis 321
CMR Protocol in Amyloidosis 321
23.9.1 Introduction 321
The Role of CMR in Amyloidosis 321
23.9.2 Findings on CMR 321
23.9.3 Differential Diagnosis 322
Tips and Tricks 322
Key Points of CMR in Amyloidosis 323
23.9.4 Case Example 323
CMR Report in Amyloidosis 325
23.10 Infiltrative/Storage Diseases: Siderotic Cardiomyopathy 326
CMR Protocol in Siderotic Cardiomyopathy 326
23.10.1 Introduction 326
23.10.2 CMR versus Other Imaging Modalities 326
The Role of CMR in Siderotic Cardiomyopathy 327
23.10.3 Findings on CMR 327
23.10.4 Differential Diagnosis 327
Tips and Tricks 327
Key Points CMR in Siderotic Cardiomyopathy 328
23.10.5 Case Example 328
CMR Report in Siderotic Cardiomyopathy 330
23.11 Tako-Tsubo Cardiomyopathy 331
CMR Protocol in Tako-Tsubo Cardiomyopathy 331
23.11.1 Introduction 331
23.11.2 CMR versus Other Imaging Modalities 331
The Role of CMR in Tako-Tsubo Cardiomyopathy 332
23.11.3 Findings on CMR 332
23.11.4 Differential Diagnosis 332
Tips and Tricks 333
Key Points CMR in Tako-Tsubo Cardiomyopathy 333
23.11.5 Case Example 333
CMR Report in Tako-Tsubo Cardiomyopathy 335
References 335
Chapter 24: Pericardial Disease 337
24.1 Pericardial Effusion 337
CMR Protocol in Pericardial Effusion 337
24.1.1 Introduction 337
24.1.2 CMR versus Other Imaging Modalities 338
24.1.3 Findings on CMR 338
24.1.3.1 Black Blood Images (Spin Echo Sequence) 338
24.1.3.2 CINE Imaging (b-SSFP) 339
24.1.3.3 Targeted Sequences 340
The Role of CMR in Pericardial Effusion 340
24.1.4 Case Example 340
Tips and Tricks 343
CMR Report in Pericardial Effusion 343
Key points CMR in Pericardial Effusion 343
24.2 Constrictive Pericarditis 344
CMR Protocol in Constrictive Pericarditis 344
24.2.1 Introduction 344
24.2.2 CMR versus Other Imaging Modalities 345
24.2.3 Findings on CMR 345
24.2.3.1 Pericardial Thickening 345
24.2.3.2 Indirect Signs of Constrictive Physiology 346
Tips and Tricks 346
The Role of CMR in Constrictive Pericarditis 346
24.2.4 Case Example 347
CMR Report in Pericardial Constriction 350
Key Points CMR in Constrictive Pericarditis 350
24.3 Pericardial Tumors 351
CMR protocol in pericardial tumors 351
24.3.1 Introduction 351
24.3.2 CMR versus Other Imaging Modalities 351
24.3.3 Findings on CMR 352
24.3.3.1 CINE Imaging (b-SSFP) 352
24.3.3.2 Myocardial Tagging 353
24.3.3.3 Black Blood Images (TSE) 353
24.3.3.4 First-Pass Perfusion Imaging 353
24.3.3.5 Post-Contrast T1 TSE and Delayed Enhanced Images 353
The Role of CMR in Pericardial Tumors 354
24.3.3.6 Case Example 1 354
24.3.3.7 Case Example 2 354
CMR Report in Pericardial Tumors 358
Key Points CMR in Pericardial Tumors 358
24.4 Congenital Abnormalities of the Pericardium 359
CMR Protocol in Congenital Abnormalities of the Pericardium 359
24.4.1 Introduction 359
24.4.2 CMR versus Other Imaging Modalities 360
24.4.3 Findings on CMR 360
The Role of CMR in Congenital Abnormalities of the Pericardium 361
24.4.4 Case Example 361
CMR Report in Congenital Pericardial Abnormalities 364
Key Points: CMR in Congenital Pericardial Abnormalities 364
Chapter 25: Cardiac Masses 365
The Role of CMR in the Diagnosis of Cardiac Masses is 365
CMR Protocol for Cardiac Masses 365
25.1 Introduction 366
25.2 Benign Cardiac Tumors 368
25.2.1 Myxoma 368
25.2.2 Lipoma 368
25.2.3 Papillary Fibroelastoma 370
25.2.4 Fibroma 370
25.2.5 Rhabdomyoma 372
25.2.6 Hemangioma 372
25.3 Malignant Cardiac Tumors 372
25.3.1 Sarcoma 372
25.3.2 Lymphoma 373
25.3.3 Metastatic Tumors 374
25.4 Other Masses and Tumors 374
25.4.1 Thrombus 374
25.4.2 Cysts 376
25.4.3 Pseudotumors 377
Tips and Tricks 377
Key Points: CMR in Diagnosis of Cardiac Masses 377
Standard CMR Report for Cardiac Masses 378
Further Readings 378
Chapter 26: Valvular Heart Disease 379
CMR Protocol in Valvular Heart Disease 379
26.1 Introduction 380
26.2 CMR Versus Other Imaging Modalities 380
Role of CMR in Valvular Heart Disease 380
26.3 Congenital 382
26.4 Regurgitation 383
26.5 Stenosis 384
26.6 Prosthetic Valves 386
26.7 Vegetations 386
26.8 Paravalvular Abscesses 386
Key Points CMR in Valvular Heart Disease 388
Tips and Tricks 388
CMR Report in Valvular Heart Disease 389
Chapter 27: Ischemic Heart Disease 390
27.1 Introduction 390
27.2 Stress Myocardial Perfusion Imaging for the Detection of Myocardial Ischemia 391
CMR Protocol for Stress Perfusion CMR 391
27.2.1 Introduction 392
27.2.2 Myocardial Perfusion CMR Versus Other Imaging Modalities 392
27.2.3 Diagnostic Performance 394
27.2.4 Prognostic Performance 396
The Role of Myocardial Perfusion CMR in IHD 396
27.2.5 How to Perform a Myocardial Perfusion CMR Study 397
Vasodilator Stress Agents 398
27.2.6 Safety Considerations 400
Safety Considerations 400
Additional Equipment 401
27.2.7 Analysis of CMR Perfusion Images 401
Tips and Tricks 403
Key Points Myocardial Perfusion CMR in IHD 403
27.2.8 Case Examples 403
27.2.8.1 Case 1 403
27.2.8.2 Case 2 405
27.2.8.3 Case 3 406
CMR Report for Myocardial Perfusion 407
27.3 CMR Stress Wall Motion Imaging for the Detection of IHD 408
Dobutamine Stress CMR Protocol 408
27.3.1 Introduction 408
27.3.2 CMR Versus Other Imaging Modalities 408
27.3.3 Diagnostic Performance 409
27.3.4 Prognostic Performance 409
The Role of Dobutamine Stress CMR 410
27.3.5 Method 411
27.3.6 Safety Considerations 411
Dobutamine 412
Atropine 412
27.3.7 Analysis 413
Tips and Tricks 414
27.3.8 Case Example 415
27.3.8.1 Case 4 415
Dobutamine Stress CMR Report 416
27.3.9 Which Stress Modality Should I Choose? 416
27.4 CMR for Assessment of Viability 417
CMR Protocol for Viability Assessment 417
27.4.1 Introduction 417
27.4.2 CMR Versus Other Imaging Modalities 417
27.4.3 CMR Methods for Viability Assessment 418
The Role of CMR for Viability Assessment 421
27.4.4 Case Examples 421
27.4.4.1 Case 5 421
27.4.4.2 Case 6 422
CMR Report for Viability 424
27.5 CMR in Acute Coronary Syndromes 425
27.5.1 Introduction 425
CMR Protocol for Acute Myocardial Infarction 425
27.5.2 CMR Versus Other Imaging Modalities 425
27.5.3 Methods 426
27.5.3.1 Cine and LGE-CMR 426
27.5.3.2 Edema Imaging for Area at Risk Assessment 426
27.5.3.3 Myocardial Salvage 427
27.5.3.4 Microvascular Obstruction 427
27.5.3.5 Complications of AMI 428
Tips and Tricks 428
The Role of CMR in ACS 429
27.5.4 Case Examples 429
27.5.4.1 Case 7 429
27.5.4.2 Case 8 431
27.5.4.3 Case 9 432
27.5.4.4 Case 10 433
27.5.4.5 Case 11 434
27.6 Positive Cardiac Enzymes and Normal Coronary Arteries 434
27.6.1 Example Case 436
27.6.1.1 Case 12 436
27.7 Potential Future Developments 437
27.7.1 Hardware Development 437
27.7.2 Software Development 437
27.7.3 New Methods 438
27.7.3.1 Noninvasive Arterial Wall Imaging 438
27.7.3.2 Myocardial Perfusion Imaging without Contrast? 438
27.7.3.3 Targeted (Molecular) Contrast Agents 438
Key Points CMR in IHD 439
References 439
Chapter 28: Basic Adult Congenital Heart Disease (ACHD) 442
Basic Protocol in ACHD 442
28.1 Introduction 443
28.2 CMR Versus Other Imaging Modalities 443
Tips and Tricks 444
28.3 Coarctation of the Aorta 444
28.4 Tetralogy of Fallot 447
28.5 Transposition of the Great Arteries 451
28.6 Coronary Anomalies 454
28.7 Partial Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return (PAPVR) 455
28.8 Summary 457
CMR Report in ACHD 458
Key Points CMR in ACHD 459
Chapter 29: Pulmonary Vein Assessment 460
CMR Protocol for Pulmonary Vein Assessment 460
29.1 Introduction 460
29.2 CMR Versus Other Imaging Modalities 461
29.3 CMR Protocol and Findings 462
29.4 CMR Analysis 462
CMR Report for Pulmonary Vein Assessment 465
Key Points CMR in Pulmonary Vein Assessment 465
Chapter 30: Interventional Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Imaging 466
30.1 Introduction 466
30.2 Interventional MRI Systems 466
30.2.1 XMR Facility Design 466
30.3 MR Visualization Strategies 468
30.3.1 Performing XMR Procedures 469
30.3.1.1 X-ray Imaging as a Backup During MRI Cardiac Catheterization 469
30.3.1.2 Performing X-ray Fused MR-Guided Interventions 470
30.3.2 Physiological Information 470
30.3.3 Early Experiences 472
30.4 Future Perspectives 474
References 477
Index 478
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 10.12.2010 |
|---|---|
| Zusatzinfo | XX, 487 p. |
| Verlagsort | London |
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Medizinische Fachgebiete ► Innere Medizin ► Kardiologie / Angiologie |
| Medizinische Fachgebiete ► Radiologie / Bildgebende Verfahren ► Kernspintomographie (MRT) | |
| Medizinische Fachgebiete ► Radiologie / Bildgebende Verfahren ► Radiologie | |
| Studium ► 1. Studienabschnitt (Vorklinik) ► Biochemie / Molekularbiologie | |
| Studium ► 2. Studienabschnitt (Klinik) ► Anamnese / Körperliche Untersuchung | |
| Schlagworte | diagnostic radiology |
| ISBN-10 | 1-84996-362-2 / 1849963622 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-1-84996-362-6 / 9781849963626 |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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