Materials for Construction and Civil Engineering (eBook)
XLIV, 902 Seiten
Springer International Publishing (Verlag)
978-3-319-08236-3 (ISBN)
This expansive volume presents the essential topics related to construction materials composition and their practical application in structures and civil installations. The book's diverse slate of expert authors assemble invaluable case examples and performance data on the most important groups of materials used in construction, highlighting aspects such as nomenclature, the properties, the manufacturing processes, the selection criteria, the products/applications, the life cycle and recyclability, and the normalization. Civil Engineering Materials: Science, Processing, and Design is ideal for practicing architects; civil, construction, and structural engineers, and serves as a comprehensive reference for students of these disciplines.
This book also:
· Provides a substantial and detailed overview of traditional materials used in structures and civil infrastructure
· Discusses properties of natural and synthetic materials in construction and materials' manufacturing processes
· Addresses topics important to professionals working with structural materials, such as corrosion, nanomaterials, materials life cycle, not often covered outside of journal literature
· Diverse author team presents expect perspective from civil engineering, construction, and architecture
· Features a detailed glossary of terms and over 400 illustrations
M. Clara Gonçalves is a Professor in the Chemical Engineering Department at the Technical University of Lisbon.
Fernanda Margarido is a Professor in the Mechanical Engineering Department at the Technical University of Lisbon.
M. Clara Gonçalves is a Professor in the Chemical Engineering Department at the Technical University of Lisbon.Fernanda Margarido is a Professor in the Mechanical Engineering Department at the Technical University of Lisbon.
Preface 6
Glossary 8
Contents 44
1: Hydraulic Binders 46
1.1 Introduction 47
1.2 History of Hydraulic Binders 50
1.3 Hydraulic Binder´s Industry Context 50
1.4 Common Cements 53
1.4.1 Portland Cement 56
1.4.1.1 Manufacturing Process 56
Raw Materials Preparation 56
Production of Cement Clinker 58
1.4.1.2 Hydration 64
1.4.1.3 Correlation Microstructure-Properties 67
1.4.1.4 Chemical Degradation Reactions 69
1.4.2 Blended Cements 73
1.4.2.1 Blended Cements with Cementitious Materials 73
1.4.2.2 Blended Cements with Limestone 79
1.5 Other Hydraulic Binders´ Families 79
1.5.1 Hydraulic Limes 80
1.5.2 Special Portland Cements 81
1.5.3 Aluminous Cements 82
1.5.4 Calcium Sulfoaluminate Cements 86
1.5.5 Alkali-Activated Cements 87
1.6 Final Remarks 89
Annex I 89
References 93
2: Renders 98
2.1 Historical Introduction 99
2.2 Mortars Classification 102
2.2.1 Functional Classification 102
2.2.2 Classification According to the Binder Type 103
2.2.3 Classification According to the Properties and/or Purpose 104
2.2.4 Classification According to the Production Site 104
2.2.5 Simplified Nomenclature Adopted in This Chapter 105
2.3 Functional Requirements and Performance Parameters 105
2.3.1 Functional Requirements 105
2.3.2 Prescriptive Specification/Performance-Based Formulation 107
2.3.3 Performance Parameters and Test Methods 108
2.3.3.1 Workability 108
2.3.3.2 Water Retention 110
2.3.3.3 Shrinkage 111
2.3.3.4 Adherence to the Substrate 113
2.3.3.5 Internal Mechanical Resistance 115
2.3.3.6 Cracking Resistance/Deformation Capacity 118
2.3.3.7 Surface Resistance 119
2.3.3.8 Water-Related Performance 121
Porosity/Porometry 122
Capillarity 123
Permeability to Water 125
Permeability to Water Vapour 125
2.3.3.9 Chemical Resistance 126
Soluble Salts Content 126
pH and Conductivity Values 128
2.3.3.10 Surface Condition (Finish) 128
2.3.3.11 Durability (Service Life) 129
2.4 Design and Execution 130
2.4.1 Constituent Materials 131
2.4.1.1 Binders 131
2.4.1.2 Aggregates 133
2.4.1.3 Admixtures 134
2.4.1.4 Additions 135
2.4.1.5 Water 136
2.4.2 General Aspects of Design and Execution of Rendering Mortars 136
2.4.3 Constituent Coats of Renders 139
2.4.4 Technology of Manufacturing, Preparation and Application 141
2.4.5 Types of Finish 144
2.5 Pathology and Diagnosis 145
2.5.1 General Characterization of the Pathology 145
2.5.2 The Most Common Anomalies in Renders and Their Probable Causes 149
2.5.2.1 Anomalies Associated with Water 149
2.5.2.2 Cracking and Fissures 149
2.5.2.3 Efflorescence and Cryptoflorescence 149
2.5.2.4 Biodegradation 150
2.5.2.5 Dirt 150
2.5.2.6 Loss of Adherence 151
2.5.2.7 Loss of Cohesion or Disaggregation 151
2.5.2.8 Erosion 151
2.5.3 Classification of Diagnostic Methods 152
2.6 Maintenance and Rehabilitation 156
2.6.1 Maintenance Strategies 156
2.6.2 Classification of the Maintenance/Repair Techniques 156
2.6.3 Interventions in Renders of Ancient Buildings 157
2.7 Standardization 158
Books/Magazines/Journals 159
Associations/Organizations/Societies 163
References 164
3: Gypsum Plasters 168
3.1 Historic Introduction 169
3.2 Gypsum Plaster Classification 171
3.3 Functional Requirements and Performance Parameters 173
3.3.1 Gypsum-Based Coatings 173
3.3.1.1 Thickness and Hardness 174
3.3.1.2 Planeness, Verticality and Surface Regularity 175
3.3.1.3 Adherence to the Substrate 176
3.3.1.4 Flexural and Compressive Strength 176
3.3.1.5 Resistance to the Attachment and Development of Moulds 177
3.3.1.6 Other Performance Parameters 177
3.3.1.7 Durability 177
3.3.2 Synthetic Binder-Based Coatings 178
3.3.2.1 Resistance to Saponification 178
3.3.2.2 Planeness, Verticality and Surface Regularity 178
3.3.2.3 Adherence to the Substrate 178
3.3.2.4 Resistance to Degradation Actions Due to Normal Use of the Spaces (Shocks, Friction, Water and Dirt) 178
3.3.2.5 Resistance to the Attachment and Development of Moulds 180
3.3.2.6 Durability 180
3.4 Design and Execution 182
3.4.1 Constituent Materials 182
3.4.1.1 Gypsum 182
3.4.1.2 Air Lime 183
3.4.1.3 Synthetic Binders 183
3.4.1.4 Mineral Fillers 183
3.4.1.5 Water 184
3.4.1.6 Additions (Pigments) 184
3.4.1.7 Admixtures 184
3.4.2 Traditional Gypsum Plasters 185
3.4.2.1 Constitution 185
3.4.2.2 Application On-Site 188
3.4.3 Nontraditional Plasters 190
3.4.3.1 Constitution 191
3.4.3.2 Application On-Site 192
3.5 Pathology and Diagnosis 208
3.5.1 Classification of the Anomalies 208
3.5.2 Classification of the Causes Associated with the Anomalies 210
3.5.3 Classification of the Diagnostic Methods 212
3.6 Maintenance and Rehabilitation 216
3.6.1 Maintenance Strategies 216
3.6.2 Classification of the Maintenance/Repair Techniques 218
3.7 Standardization 222
Final Note 222
Books/Magazines/Journals 222
Associations/Organizations/Societies 226
Companies/Gypsum Products 226
References 226
4: Concrete 230
4.1 Concrete with Hydraulic Binders 231
4.1.1 Introduction 231
4.1.2 Historical Overview 232
4.1.2.1 Etymology of the Terms Concrete and Betão 232
4.1.2.2 Concrete: From Ancient Times to Modernity 232
4.1.3 Regulatory Framework 234
4.1.4 Constituents 239
4.1.4.1 Cement 240
4.1.4.2 Aggregates 242
4.1.4.3 Additions 244
4.1.4.4 Admixtures 244
4.1.4.5 Water 246
4.1.4.6 Fibres 247
4.1.5 The Diversity of Concrete 247
4.1.5.1 Diversity of Uses 247
4.1.5.2 Diversity of Types of Concretes 247
4.2 Properties of Concrete 248
4.2.1 Behaviour in Fresh State 248
4.2.1.1 Concept of Workability 249
4.2.1.2 Test Methods 249
4.2.1.3 Factors That Affect Workability 252
4.2.1.4 Rheology 253
4.2.1.5 Other Properties in Fresh State 254
4.2.2 Properties in Hardened State 256
4.2.2.1 Mechanical Strength Properties 256
Compressive Strength 257
Tensile Strength 258
Shear Strength 258
4.2.2.2 Deformability 259
Modulus of Elasticity 259
Poisson´s Ratio 260
Shrinkage 261
Creep 261
Relaxation 262
Thermal Expansion 262
4.2.2.3 Density 262
4.2.3 Durability of Concrete 262
4.2.3.1 Degradation Mechanisms 262
Degradation Due to Corrosion of the Reinforcements 263
Degradation of the Concrete Itself 264
4.2.3.2 Characterisation of Properties Relating to Durability 267
4.3 Production, Application and Control 268
4.3.1 Specifying Concrete 268
4.3.2 Methods for Concrete Mix Design 269
4.3.3 Concreting Operations 269
4.3.3.1 Casting 270
4.3.3.2 Compaction 270
4.3.3.3 Curing 271
Protection 272
4.3.4 Controlling and Checking Conformity 272
4.3.5 Concrete Defects Linked with Concreting 273
4.3.5.1 Discolouration 274
4.3.5.2 Blistering 274
4.3.5.3 Delamination 275
4.3.5.4 Bugholes 275
4.3.5.5 Sand Streaking 275
4.3.5.6 Dusting 276
4.3.5.7 Scaling 276
4.3.5.8 Honeycombing 277
4.3.5.9 Plastic Settlement Cracks 278
Layer Lines 278
4.4 Concrete and Sustainability 278
4.5 Final Considerations 279
References 280
5: Bituminous Binders and Mixtures 282
5.1 Introduction 283
5.2 Bitumen and Bituminous Binders 283
5.2.1 General Properties 283
5.2.2 Bituminous Binders 291
5.2.3 Bitumen Emulsions 292
5.3 Water Proofing Systems 294
5.4 Bituminous Mixtures 296
5.4.1 Composition and Properties 296
5.4.2 Products and Applications 301
5.4.3 Maintenance, Rehabilitation and Recycling 306
Standards 308
Books/Magazines/Journals 314
Associations/Organisations/Societies 314
Companies 314
References 315
6: Steel for Civil Construction 317
6.1 Introduction 317
6.2 The Crystal Structure of Iron 318
6.3 Mechanical Properties 320
6.3.1 Elastic Deformation 320
6.3.2 Plastic Deformation 322
6.3.3 Toughness, Ductile Fracture and Brittle Fracture 323
6.3.4 Effect of Temperature 325
6.3.5 Variability of Mechanical Properties 326
6.4 Effects of Alloy Elements 327
6.4.1 Carbon 327
6.4.2 Other Alloy Elements 329
6.5 Microstructure 331
6.6 Optimising Mechanical Properties 333
6.6.1 Work Hardening 333
6.6.2 Heat Treatment 334
6.7 Welded Construction 337
6.8 Main Types of Steel Used in Civil Engineering: Uses and Properties 340
6.8.1 Structural Fe-C Steels 341
6.8.2 High Strength Microalloyed Steels 341
6.8.3 Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steels 342
6.8.4 Stainless Steels for Welded Construction 342
6.8.5 Summary of Properties 342
6.9 Portuguese Standards 344
Conclusion 346
Bibliography 346
7: Ceramics 347
7.1 Introduction 348
7.2 Clay Bricks 348
7.2.1 Manufacturing Process 348
7.2.2 Regulations Applicable (Specification and Testing) 350
7.2.2.1 European Standard EN771-1 350
7.2.2.2 European Standards EN772 351
7.2.3 CE Marking 354
7.2.4 Problems with Clay Bricks 355
7.2.4.1 Action of Sulphates in Mortars and Plasters [1, 4] 355
7.2.4.2 Efflorescence and Stains [4] 356
7.3 Clay Roof Tiles 357
7.3.1 Manufacturing Process 357
7.3.2 Regulations Applicable (Specification and Testing) 358
7.3.2.1 European Standard EN 1304 358
7.3.2.2 Testing Standards 358
7.3.3 CE Marking 359
7.3.4 Problems with Clay Roof Tiles 360
7.3.4.1 Cracks [2] 360
7.3.4.2 Accumulation of Moss and Detritus [2] 361
7.3.4.3 Peeling Caused by Ice [2] 361
7.3.4.4 Variations in Colour [2] 362
7.4 Ceramic Wall and Floor Tiles 362
7.4.1 Manufacturing Process 362
7.4.1.1 Dry Pressing 364
7.4.1.2 Extrusion (Semi-wet) 365
7.4.1.3 Extrusion (Dry) 365
7.4.2 Regulations Applicable (Specification and Testing) 365
7.4.2.1 European Standard EN14411 365
7.4.2.2 Testing Standards (EN ISO 10545) 367
7.4.3 CE Marking 373
7.4.4 Problems with Ceramic Tiles 374
7.5 Recovery of Ceramic Waste 376
References 377
8: Glass 379
8.1 Glass in Construction and Architecture: Brief History 380
8.2 Glass Composition and Structure 385
8.2.1 What Is Glass? 385
8.2.1.1 Zachariasen Rules or Crystallochemical Theory 388
8.2.2 Raw Materials 391
8.3 Glass Technology 394
8.3.1 Melting, Homogenisation and Fining 394
8.3.2 Flat Glass-Forming Techniques 397
8.3.2.1 Roman Glass 397
8.3.2.2 Mediaeval Glass 397
8.3.2.3 Crown Glass 397
8.3.2.4 Colburn-Libbey-Owens Glass 397
8.3.2.5 Fourcault-Pittsburgh Glass 397
8.3.2.6 Float Glass 398
8.3.3 Annealing 400
8.3.4 Flow Chart of Float Glass Production Process 402
8.4 Glass Properties 404
8.4.1 Optical Properties 404
8.4.1.1 Reflection 405
Specular Reflection 405
Diffuse Reflection 406
Mixed Reflection 407
8.4.1.2 Refraction 408
8.4.1.3 Scattering 408
8.4.1.4 Absorption 408
8.4.1.5 Translucence, Opacity 409
8.4.2 Mechanical Properties 409
8.4.2.1 Stress and Strain 409
8.4.2.2 Brittle Fracture 411
Fracture Pattern (Annealed Glass) 412
Fracture Pattern (Tempered Glass) 412
8.4.3 Thermal Properties: Heat Transmission 413
8.5 Corrosion 415
8.5.1 Etching 415
8.5.2 Leaching 416
8.6 Conservation, Durability and Cleaning 418
8.6.1 Condensation 418
8.6.2 Removing Condensation from Inside Windows 418
8.6.3 Handling and Storage 419
8.6.4 Cleaning 419
8.7 Recycling: Life Cycle 419
8.8 Glasses Used in Construction and Architecture 420
8.8.1 Ordinary Glass (Clear Float Glass) 420
How It Is Produced 420
Where It Should Be Used 420
Recommendations for All Glass Types 421
8.8.2 Decorated Glass 422
8.8.2.1 Silkscreen Printed Glass 422
How It Is Produced 422
Where It Should Be Used 422
Specific Recommendations for Silkscreen Printed Glass 422
8.8.2.2 Rolled Plate Glass 422
How It Is Produced 423
Where It Should Be Used 423
Specific Recommendations for Rolled Plate Glass 423
8.8.3 Coated Glass 423
8.8.3.1 Anti-reflection Glass 423
Where It Should Be Used 424
8.8.3.2 Mirror Glass 424
Where It Should Be Used 424
8.8.3.3 Low-Emission Glass 424
Where It Should Be Used 425
Recommendations for Coated Glass 425
8.8.4 Self-Cleaning Glass 425
Where It Should Be Used 426
Specific Recommendations for Self-Cleaning Glass 426
8.8.5 Safety Glass 427
8.8.5.1 Laminated Glass 427
How It Is Produced 428
Where It Should Be Used 428
Properties of Laminated Glass 429
Specific Recommendations for Laminated Glass 430
8.8.5.2 Tempered Glass 433
How It Is Produced 433
Where It Should Be Used 434
Specific Recommendations for Tempered Glass 435
Curved Tempered Glass 435
How It Is Produced 435
Where It Should Be Used 435
8.8.6 Fire-Retarding Glass 436
8.8.7 Double Glazing 436
How It Is Produced 436
Where It Should Be Used 436
Colour 436
Argon 437
Double Glazing with a Built-In Blind 437
Specific Recommendations for Double Glazing 437
Bibiliography 438
Glass History 438
Glass Structure and Properties 438
Glass Preservation and Maintenance 438
Glass Products and Manufactures 438
Glass recycling 439
Glass Societies and Organizations 439
Glass Technical Publications 439
Glass Project Software 439
9: Ornamental Stones 440
9.1 Introduction 441
9.2 Stone Material Structure 444
9.2.1 Granite 445
9.2.2 Marble 447
9.2.3 Slate and Other Schists 447
9.3 Physical-Mechanical Properties: Specifications, Standards and Regulation 449
9.3.1 CE Marking for Natural Stone Products 451
9.3.2 Natural Stone Products Guarantee: Technical Certification 456
9.3.3 Methods for Physical Properties Evaluation 459
9.3.4 Methods for Mechanical Properties Evaluation 461
9.3.5 Methods for Durability Evaluation 461
9.3.6 Representative Physical-Mechanical Properties 464
9.4 Stone Products and Application 465
9.4.1 Exterior Pavements (Tiles, Slabs, Setts and Kerbs for Floors and Stairs) 465
9.4.2 Walls (Exterior and Interior) 466
9.4.3 Interior Pavements (Floors and Stairs) 466
9.4.4 Slate and Stone Products for Discontinuous Roofing and Cladding 466
9.4.5 Special Products 467
9.4.6 Stone Construction Products Requirements According to Specific Applications 467
9.5 Stone Fixing Systems 475
9.5.1 Direct Fixing Systems 475
9.5.2 Indirect Fixing Systems 478
9.6 Conservation, Durability and Maintenance of Stone Construction Products 483
9.7 Life Cycle 485
References 487
10: Polymers in Building and Construction 489
10.1 Introduction 489
10.2 Polymer Structure 491
10.3 Classes of Polymeric Materials 495
10.4 Polymers and Construction 499
10.5 Properties of Selected Polymers 502
10.5.1 Polyethylene 502
10.5.2 Polypropylene 507
10.5.3 Polyvinyl Chloride 510
10.5.4 Polystyrene 511
10.5.5 Polyurethanes 511
10.5.6 Elastomers 512
10.5.6.1 Thermoplastic Elastomers 514
10.6 Polymer Testing 515
10.6.1 Physical Tests 518
10.6.1.1 Sample/Specimen Preparation 518
10.6.1.2 Mechanical Properties 519
Elastic Properties 520
Tear Resistance 520
Resilience and Toughness 522
Compressive Strength 522
Compression and Indentation 523
Hardness 524
Friction resistance 525
Shear Strength 525
Flexural Strength 525
Impact Tests 526
10.6.1.3 Endurance Evaluation 526
Creep Tests 526
Permanent Deformation 529
Fatigue Resistance 529
Abrasion Resistance 530
Heating by Hysteresis 530
10.6.1.4 Properties of Cellular Materials 531
Apparent Density 531
Determining Open and Closed Cells Content 531
10.6.1.5 Thermal Properties 532
Thermal Expansion 532
Thermal Conductivity 532
Thermal Dimensional Stability 532
Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis 534
Semicrystalline Polymers 535
Elastomers 536
Thermosetting Polymers 536
General Properties 537
10.7 Chemical and Physical-Chemical Tests 538
10.7.1 Accelerated Ageing Tests 538
10.7.2 Stability under Gases and Liquids 538
Appendix: The Three-Litre House 538
Bibiliography 540
A: General 540
B: Specialised 540
11: Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites 542
11.1 Introduction 542
11.2 The Use of FRP Materials Throughout History 544
11.3 General Properties of FRP Materials 547
11.3.1 Constituent Materials 547
11.3.1.1 Fibres 547
11.3.1.2 Polymeric Matrices 550
Resins 550
Polymerization Agents 552
Fillers 552
Additives 552
11.3.2 Philosophy in the Development of FRP Composites 553
11.3.3 Manufacturing Processes 554
11.3.3.1 Pultrusion 554
11.3.3.2 Hand Layup 556
11.3.3.3 Other Processes 556
11.3.4 Field of Application of FRP Materials in Civil Construction 557
11.3.4.1 Rebars for Internal Reinforcement of New Structures 557
11.3.4.2 Repair and Strengthening of Existing Structures 557
11.3.4.3 New Hybrid Structures 559
11.3.4.4 All-FRP Structures 559
11.3.5 Durability of FRP Materials 560
11.3.6 Sustainability of FRP Materials 561
11.3.7 Fire Behaviour of FRP Materials 563
11.4 GFRP Pultruded Profiles 564
11.4.1 Structural Shapes of GFRP Pultruded Profiles 564
11.4.2 Typical Properties of GFRP Pultruded Profiles 567
11.4.3 Advantages and Difficulties in the Use of GFRP Pultruded Profiles 570
11.4.4 Field of Application of GFRP Pultruded Profiles 571
11.4.4.1 Examples in New Construction 572
11.4.4.2 Examples in Rehabilitation 574
11.4.5 Connections Between GFRP Pultruded Profiles 576
11.4.6 Regulation for GFRP Pultruded Profiles 579
11.5 FRP Rebars 580
11.5.1 Geometries of FRP Rebars 580
11.5.2 Typical Properties of FRP Rebars 580
11.5.3 Advantages and Difficulties in the Use of FRP Rebars 582
11.5.4 Field of Application of FRP Rebars 583
11.5.5 Application Process of FRP Rebars 584
11.5.6 Regulation for FRP Rebars 584
11.6 FRP Strengthening Systems 585
11.6.1 Geometries of FRP Strengthening Systems 585
11.6.2 Typical Properties of FRP Strengthening Systems 586
11.6.3 Advantages and Difficulties in the Use of FRP Strengthening Systems 586
11.6.4 Field of Application of FRP Strengthening Systems 588
11.6.5 Application Process of FRP Strengthening Systems 588
11.6.6 Regulation for FRP Strengthening Systems 592
Sources of Further Information 593
Key Books 593
Series of Proceedings 593
Major Trade/Professional Bodies 593
Research and Interest Groups 594
Websites/Online Videos 594
References 594
12: Wood 598
12.1 Introduction 599
12.2 What Is Wood 600
Softwoods and Hardwoods 601
Earlywood and Latewood 601
Sapwood and Heartwood 602
Anisotropy 602
Variability of the Wood 602
Wood Defects 604
12.3 Hygroscopicity and Moisture Content 605
Wood Moisture and Shrinkage 605
Dimensional Stability and Warp Formation 606
Moisture Content and Equilibrium Moisture Content 607
Precautions for the Use of Wood 609
Specification and Verification of Moisture Content 609
12.4 Load Carrying Capacity of Wood 610
Factors Influencing Wood Mechanical Properties 610
Mechanical Strength Sorting and Visual Strength Grading 611
Visual Strength Grades and Strength Classes 612
Characteristic Strength Values and Design Strength Values 612
12.5 Wood Deterioration by Physical and Chemical Agents 612
Weathering 613
Fire 613
12.6 Wood Deterioration by Biological Agents 614
Fungi 615
Subterranean Termites 616
Insects of Dry Wood 618
12.7 Conservation and Protection of Wood 620
12.8 Wood-Based Products and Their Applications 621
References 623
13: Cork 625
13.1 Introduction 626
What Is Cork? 626
Raw Materials of Cork 626
Manufacturing Cork Products for Civil Construction 628
13.2 Structure and Composition of Cork 633
Macroscopic Structure of Cork 633
Microscopic Structure of Cork 634
Chemical Composition of Cork 635
13.3 Cork Products and Their Physical and Mechanical Characteristics 636
Agglomerated Cork for Coverings (Floors and Walls) 636
Agglomerated Cork for Sound and Thermal Insulation 638
Agglomerated Cork for Vibration Insulation 645
Agglomerated Cork for Expansion Joints 646
Granulated and Regranulated Cork 646
Standardisation for Cork Products for Construction 648
Usage Methods 656
Maintenance and Cleaning 660
13.4 Cork Products in the Context of Construction Products Directive 662
13.5 Ecological Aspects Related to Cork Products 663
Reuse and Recycling 663
Ecological Aspects 664
13.6 Future Cork Products for the Civil Construction Industry 664
References 666
14: Nanomaterials 668
14.1 Introduction to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 669
14.1.1 Nanotechnology in Art History 672
14.1.2 Nanomaterials in Nature 677
14.2 General Features of Nanomaterials 685
14.2.1 Size Matters 685
14.2.2 Shape Matters 686
14.2.2.1 Spherical Nanoparticles 688
14.2.2.2 Polyhedral Nanoparticles 688
14.2.2.3 Magic Numbers 690
14.2.2.4 Lattice Parameter 693
14.2.3 Physical Chemistry: Few Concepts 694
14.2.3.1 Homogeneous Nucleation and Growth 694
14.2.3.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation and Growth 695
14.2.3.3 Lattice Mismatch or Misfit 697
14.2.3.4 Thermodynamic Stability, Instability, and Metastability 698
14.2.4 Motivation to Growth 699
14.2.4.1 Ostwald Ripening 699
14.2.4.2 Sintering 700
14.2.4.3 Surface Relaxation and Restructuring 700
14.2.4.4 Oxidation and Passivation 701
14.2.5 Scales Law 701
14.2.5.1 Gravitational Force Versus van der Waals Force 701
14.2.5.2 Friction Forces 702
14.2.6 Size-Dependent Properties 702
14.2.7 Top-down and Bottom-up Approaches 704
14.3 Civil Engineering Nanomaterials: Case Studies 706
14.3.1 Traditional Construction Materials Whose Performance Is Increased by the Presence of Nanoparticles 706
14.3.1.1 Nanoparticles in Portland Cement 706
14.3.1.2 Nanoparticles in Pavement 707
14.3.1.3 Hardened Metals with Nanodispersion 707
14.3.1.4 Coated Glasses 708
14.3.2 Eco-Active Building Materials (Removing Pollution, Antibacterial, and Self-Cleaning Properties) 708
14.3.2.1 The Photocatalyst Effect 708
14.3.2.2 Self-Cleaning Mortars 709
14.3.2.3 Self-Cleaning Glass 709
14.3.2.4 Ceramic Surfaces with Self-Cleaning Qualities 710
14.3.2.5 Self-Cleaning Steel 710
14.3.2.6 Aqueous Coatings with Self-Cleaning Qualities 710
14.3.3 Building Materials with Self-Healing Properties 710
14.3.3.1 Self-Healing Methods 710
14.3.3.2 Self-Healing Cement 711
14.3.4 Building Materials with Antibacterial Properties 712
14.3.4.1 Antibacterial Ceramic 712
14.3.4.2 Antibacterial Paints and Coatings 712
14.3.5 Building Materials with Photovoltaic Properties 712
14.4 Nanotechnology and Toxicity 713
Conclusions 713
Introduction to Nanomaterials 714
Nanotoxicology 714
Scientific Publications 714
Products and Supliers 714
Societies and Organizations 715
References 715
15: Corrosion 717
15.1 Introduction 718
15.1.1 Definition of Corrosion 718
15.1.2 Importance and Costs of Corrosion 718
15.2 Corrosion Basics 719
15.2.1 Electrochemical Reactions 720
15.2.2 Anodes and Cathodes in Corrosion Cells 722
15.2.3 Passivity 723
15.2.4 Thermodynamic Stability and Potential-pH Diagrams 724
15.3 Types of Corrosion 725
15.3.1 Uniform Corrosion 725
15.3.2 Galvanic Corrosion 727
15.3.3 Pitting Corrosion 729
15.3.4 Crevice Corrosion 730
15.3.5 Filiform Corrosion 731
15.3.6 Selective Leaching 731
15.3.7 Intergranular Corrosion 733
15.3.8 Environmentally Induced Cracking 735
15.3.9 Biological Corrosion 738
15.3.10 Polymer Corrosion 738
15.3.11 Corrosion of Stone 739
15.4 Anticorrosive Protection Methods 740
15.4.1 Materials Selection 740
15.4.2 Design 741
15.4.3 Changing the Corrosive Environment 743
15.4.4 Modifying the System Potential (Cathodic Protection) 743
15.4.4.1 Cathodic Protection by Sacrificial Anodes 744
15.4.4.2 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection 745
15.4.5 Coatings 746
15.4.5.1 Metallic Coatings 746
15.4.5.2 Nonmetallic Inorganic Coatings 747
15.4.5.3 Organic Coatings 747
15.5 Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Rebars 748
15.5.1 The Chloride Ion 748
15.5.2 Carbon Dioxide 749
15.5.3 Prevention/Remediation 750
15.5.3.1 Monitoring 750
15.5.3.2 Prevention Methods 751
References 753
16: Structural Adhesives 755
16.1 Introduction 756
16.1.1 Fundamental Definitions 758
16.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Adhesives 761
16.1.2.1 Advantages 761
16.1.2.2 Disadvantages 763
16.2 Adhesives 765
16.2.1 Classification 765
16.2.1.1 Origin 765
16.2.1.2 Chemical Composition 765
16.2.1.3 Field of Application 769
16.2.1.4 Physical Form and Type of Curing/Setting 770
16.2.1.5 Substrate and Type of Environment 771
16.2.1.6 Durability 771
16.2.1.7 Cost 772
16.2.1.8 Additional Classifications 772
16.2.2 Characteristics 774
16.3 Adhesion 777
16.3.1 Definition of the Phenomenon 777
16.3.2 Explanatory Theories 779
16.4 Bonded Connection 785
16.4.1 Selection of the Bonding System 785
16.4.2 Design of the Bonded Connection 787
16.4.3 Preparation of Surfaces to Be Bonded 788
16.4.4 Fabrication of the Connection 789
16.4.5 Process Control 790
16.5 Performance and Durability 791
16.6 Applications 793
16.7 Future Developments 795
16.8 Standards, Regulations and Other Useful Bibliography 796
16.8.1 Bonding System Selection 796
16.8.1.1 Concrete Structures 796
16.8.1.2 Timber Structures 796
16.8.1.3 Metal Structures 797
16.8.1.4 General Applications 797
16.8.2 Bonded Connection Design 797
16.8.2.1 Concrete Structures 797
16.8.2.2 Timber Structures 798
16.8.2.3 Metal Structures 798
16.8.2.4 General Applications 799
16.8.3 Surface Preparation 799
16.8.3.1 Bibliographical References 799
16.8.3.2 Standards 799
16.8.4 Process Control 800
16.8.4.1 Bibliographical References 800
16.8.4.2 Standards 800
16.8.5 Performance and Durability 801
16.8.5.1 Bibliographical References 801
16.8.5.2 Standards 801
16.8.6 Applications 803
16.8.6.1 Bibliographical References 803
16.8.6.2 Specifications 804
References 804
17: Organic Coatings 810
17.1 Introduction 810
17.2 Historical Notes 811
17.3 Composition 812
17.3.1 The Binder 812
17.3.1.1 The Processes of Curing or Drying 813
17.3.1.2 Adhesion 814
17.3.2 Volatile Components 816
17.3.3 Pigments 818
17.3.3.1 Optical Properties 818
17.3.3.2 Shape of the Particles 819
17.3.3.3 Dispersibility and Pigment Concentration 820
17.3.3.4 Classes of Pigments 821
17.3.4 Additives 822
17.3.5 Classification of Paints 823
17.4 Paint Degradation 823
17.4.1 Aggressive Agents 823
17.4.1.1 Ultraviolet Radiation 823
17.4.1.2 Temperature 825
17.4.1.3 Humidity and Condensation 825
17.4.1.4 Acid Pollutants from the Atmosphere 827
17.4.2 Symptoms and Mechanisms of Degradation 827
17.4.2.1 Loss of Gloss 827
17.4.2.2 Chalking 828
17.4.2.3 Cracking and Loss of Adhesion 828
17.5 Selection of a Paint System 829
17.5.1 Masonry 829
17.5.2 Wood 830
17.5.2.1 Pretreatments and the Role of Primers 831
17.5.2.2 Semi-transparent Paints 831
17.5.3 Iron and Ferrous Substrates 832
17.5.4 Zinc and Galvanized Steel 832
17.5.5 Aluminium and Light Alloys 833
17.6 Recent Trends 833
17.6.1 Silicate Coatings 833
17.6.2 Paints Based on Nanocomposites 834
17.6.3 Self-Cleaning and Photocatalytic Organic Coatings 834
References 834
18: Environmental Impact and Life Cycle Evaluation of Materials 836
18.1 Introduction 837
18.2 The Construction Industry 838
18.2.1 The Environmental Impact of the Construction Industry 838
18.2.1.1 Natural Resources 838
18.2.1.2 Energy 839
18.2.1.3 Pollution 840
18.2.1.4 Waste 841
18.2.2 Life Cycle Analysis of the Construction Industry 842
18.3 Integrated Waste Management 845
18.3.1 Introduction to Waste-Related Problems 845
18.3.2 Legislative Framework 847
18.4 Construction and Demolition Waste 850
18.4.1 Introduction 850
18.4.2 Waste Classification 852
18.4.3 Characterisation of CandDW 852
18.4.4 Ecotoxicological Effects of CandDW 857
18.5 Recovery of CandDW 858
18.5.1 Introduction 858
18.5.2 Recycling Materials Contained in CandDW 859
18.5.3 CandDW Recycling Plants 861
18.6 Uses for Recycled Materials 864
Conclusions 869
References 870
19: LNEC Technical Approval and Construction Products Certification 873
19.1 Foreword 873
19.2 Topics About the Construction Products Regulation and the CE Marking 874
19.2.1 Background 874
19.2.2 Construction Products Regulation (CPR) Versus Construction Products Directive (CPD) 875
19.3 LNEC Technical Approvals 883
19.3.1 A History with Around 50 Years 883
19.3.2 Development of a Technical Approval Study 884
19.3.3 Scope of LNEC Technical Approval 885
19.4 LNEC Application Documents 886
19.5 The Certification of Construction Products 888
19.6 Final Note 890
References 892
20: Aggregates 893
20.1 Aggregate Properties 894
20.1.1 Introduction to Aggregates 894
20.1.2 Properties of Aggregates 901
20.1.3 Aggregate Tests 904
20.2 Production and Quality Control 906
20.2.1 Natural Aggregates 906
20.2.2 Recycled Aggregates 907
20.2.3 Quality Control and CE Marking 908
20.3 Applications and Technical Specifications 909
20.3.1 Buildings and Bridges 909
20.3.1.1 Scope 909
20.3.1.2 Aggregates Classification 910
20.3.1.3 Geometrical Requirements 910
20.3.1.4 Physical Requirements 915
20.3.1.5 Chemical Requirements 917
20.3.2 Infrastructures of Transport 918
20.3.2.1 Scope 918
20.3.2.2 Unbound Granular Layers for Road and Airport Pavements: General Characteristics 918
20.3.2.3 Unbound Granular Layers for Road and Airport Pavements: Most Important Functions 919
20.3.2.4 Base and Sub-base Layers for Road and Airport Pavements: Applicable Technical Specifications 921
20.3.2.5 Unbound Aggregates for Use in Construction of Railway Track: General Characteristics 923
20.3.2.6 Unbound Aggregates for Use in Construction of Railway Track: Most Important Functions 924
20.3.2.7 Railway Ballast: Applicable Technical Specifications 925
Standards 925
Books/Magazines/Journals 930
Associations/Organisations/Societies 931
Companies 931
References 931
Index 933
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 3.3.2015 |
|---|---|
| Zusatzinfo | XLIV, 902 p. 474 illus., 277 illus. in color. |
| Verlagsort | Cham |
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Technik ► Bauwesen |
| Schlagworte | Composition of structural materials • Concrete and cement in structures • Corrosion prevention and protection • Materials in civil infrastructure • Polymeric building materials • Polymeric matrix composites • Structural glue • Wooden materials in structures |
| ISBN-10 | 3-319-08236-1 / 3319082361 |
| ISBN-13 | 978-3-319-08236-3 / 9783319082363 |
| Haben Sie eine Frage zum Produkt? |
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